NAZI&Hitlers Policy. of the 1920s.
Anti-semitism.
Exam question notes
Weimar problems 1918/19
•••[Event notes]•••
Rise of NAZI party 1920 - 1924
Events 1920-1929
•••[Background notes]•••
•••[Misc notes]•••
8-9 Nov 1923 Munich Beer Hall Putch.
Weimar 1924-29 - Political (1)
Weimar 1924-29 - General
Gustav Stresemann
Weimar 1924-29 - Political (2)
Weimar 1924-29 -Economics
Analysing Cartoons.
•••[Revision Notes]•••
ToV & Weimar (1)
ToV & Weimar (2)
The NAZI party 1924 - 29 (1)
Pointless facts.
The NAZI Party 1924 - 29 (2)
Germany 1929 - 32
Domestic Stability & Foreign Relations.
Exam Essay Question Notes
The NAZI party 1930 - 33
Rise of NAZI party (extra)
Who supported the NAZI's?
Rise of & opposition to NAZIs
Reichstag Fire.
Reichstag Fire onward...
Enabling act.
Back to Categories
Hitler 1889-1945. Bio. notes.
•••[Notes]•••
•••[Auxillary Notes]•••
Source Questions.
Sylabus outline for life in Hitler's Germany.
Concepts within Nazism
Nazi economics
Strands in Nazism
Economic actions of Nazi gov.
Hitlers leadership.
Rearmament
Misc notes
Working class in Germany
German Workers Front
Employement
Social outsiders.
Women.
Children.
Anti-Semitism
Anti-semitic actions.
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Morality.
Philosophy A
Philosophy B
Philosophy C
Text: Descartes' "Meditations" (a)
Text: Descartes' "Meditations" (b)
Text: Descartes' "Meditations" (c) 1
Text: Descartes' "Meditations" (c) 2
Descartes Website.
Back to Categories
Hitler 1889-1945. Bio. notes.
NAZI&Hitlers Policy. of the 1920s.
Anti-semitism.
Morality.
Exam question notes
Weimar problems 1918/19
•••[Event notes]•••
Rise of NAZI party 1920 - 1924
Events 1920-1929
•••[Background notes]•••
•••[Misc notes]•••
8-9 Nov 1923 Munich Beer Hall Putch.
Weimar 1924-29 - Political (1)
Philosophy A
Weimar 1924-29 - General
Gustav Stresemann
Philosophy B
Philosophy C
Weimar 1924-29 - Political (2)
Weimar 1924-29 -Economics
Analysing Cartoons.
•••[Revision Notes]•••
ToV & Weimar (1)
ToV & Weimar (2)
The NAZI party 1924 - 29 (1)
Pointless facts.
The NAZI Party 1924 - 29 (2)
Germany 1929 - 32
Domestic Stability & Foreign Relations.
Exam Essay Question Notes
The NAZI party 1930 - 33
Text: Descartes' "Meditations" (a)
Text: Descartes' "Meditations" (b)
Text: Descartes' "Meditations" (c) 1
Text: Descartes' "Meditations" (c) 2
Rise of NAZI party (extra)
Who supported the NAZI's?
•••[Notes]•••
Rise of & opposition to NAZIs
•••[Auxillary Notes]•••
Descartes Website.
Source Questions.
Reichstag Fire.
Reichstag Fire onward...
Enabling act.
Sylabus outline for life in Hitler's Germany.
Concepts within Nazism
Nazi economics
Strands in Nazism
Economic actions of Nazi gov.
Hitlers leadership.
Rearmament
Misc notes
Working class in Germany
German Workers Front
Employement
Social outsiders.
Women.
Children.
Anti-Semitism
Anti-semitic actions.
Back to Categories
Hitler 1889-1945. Bio. notes.
•Born 20th April 1889 in Austria
[->(a) Father was illigitimate. E.g. Hitlers grandfather was not known.
-->(a)Himler knew there was rumour evidence Hitlers grandfather may be Jewish.
--->Research shows this is very unlikely
->Hitlers fathers name was Schicklgrüber - his father chose to adopt his mothers maried name 'Heidler' but misspelling made this Hitler.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
•Main source of info on his early years = Mein Kampf (1924)
->This introduces problems with source reliability.
[-->(e)Political biography is self justification.]
->Portrays self as strugling
•Mein Kampf - was not written by Hitler but he dictated it.
•Gained nationalist views in part from his history teaching at school. Favourite subject.
->•Grew up as a strong nationalist.
-->Idea that austria should be part of germany came much from education he recieved.
•Most teachers thought Hitler lacked discipline.
->Left school in 1905 without 'Leavers Certificate.
-->Lived at home with mum till 1907 drawing
--->1906 took a trip to Vienna
---->Decided he wanted to study at Academy of Fine Arts. Took entrance exam but failed. Not allowed to re-sit.
•His mother died in 1907 from Cancer
->Mother's doctor was a jew. -->Theory that this was cause of anti-sematism is unlikely. Hitler thanked the doctor and gave him protection
•In Vienna 1908-1913 as artist.
->Ran out of money and was not well off. Didn't want to work.
-->Vienna had a very large Jewish population.
--->Many think anti-sematism came from here.
---->Writes of them as filth - and as part of everything that is bad.
->Lived in hostels. Painting postcards etc.
-->Saw Jews with money whilst he was poor. Blame Jews for social & economic inequalities.
•Adopted very high morral stance.
•1913 Left Vienna & went to Munich in Bavaria.
->Thought to be to avoid Austrian millitary service.
-->Found & went back but failed medical.
•1914 War breaks out & Hitler welcomes the war.
->Gave him a sense of purpose.
->Met Rudolf Hess in his regiment. Later Rudolf became dep. Fuhrer.
->Was a messenger to & from the front line.
-->Got Iron Cross for bravery.
-->Was wounded on one occaision (shrapnel in his leg) spent short time in hospital.
->Fought in active service for nearly all the war but did not want promotion. Ended war as a Corporal.
•October 1918 - Hitlers regiment at front line when gas atack occured. Was only just saved.
->Believed fate had saved him for a greater purpose.
•End of war - Hitler was in hospital.
->Heard of Kaisers Abdication and Armistice whilst in hospital.
-->Angry @ this.
--->Claims this motivated his entering into politics.
-->Believed politicians were in league with the Jews and Marxists and had betrayed the people.
--->Hitler hated the idea of a Republic.
•Post WW1 - Hitler remained in the army till March 1920.
->Worked spying on extreme Left & Right wing political groups
-->Atended DAP (German Workers Party) meeting in Sept 1919.
--->Became increasingly involved in DAP & joined party.
•Assists in drawinq up DAP policy in 1919-1920.
->25 Point Plan
•1920 speaking @ party events in favour of revolution.
•31 march 1920 Hitler leaves army and works for NAZI Party fulltime
->In charge of propoganda
•11 July 1921 - Hitler resigned from the NAZI party.
•Hitler rejoins party w. dictatorial power (till 1945)
•8-9 Nov 1923 - Munich Beer Hall Putsch.
->Failed
•On trial in feb-mar 1924 for High Treason.
•In prison for 9 months 1924.
->Whilst there he wrote Mein Kamph - (dictated to Rudolf Hess)
•Post 1924 election success realised
->'We will have to hold our noses & work with democracy to destroy democracy.'
•1925 - Out of prison, working as a journalist.
- - - - - - - - - -
•Austrian
->Not a German citizen.
-->Therefore could not stand in German elections.
- - - - - - - - - -
•CHARACTER POINTS.
>Hitler did not drink alcohol.
>Nervous of women.
>Had deep hatred of Jews & Marxists.
>Did not like democracy.
>Did not get involved in day to day running of country.
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NAZI&Hitlers Policy. of the 1920s.
•Hitler & Drexler = main authors
->25 Point Plan stayed in use untill 1945.
Apart from point 11 we are not certain exactly who wrote each point.
•25 Points included: (summary)
->1.Union of Germans in greater Germany (Anchlus w/ Austria)*
->2.Demands revocation of ToV.
->3.Wanted colonies.
->4.Only those of German blood may be German citizens.* (basis for discrimination against Jews etc.)
->5.Seperate laws for non-citizens.
->6.Right to vote = for citizens only. Govermental posts for citizens only.
->7.States primary duty is to provide a livelihood for its citizens.
->9.All citizens to have equal rights & duties.
->10.Citizens have a duty work.
->11.(communist style demand - written by Feder) Against rich capitalists.
->12-15.Economic & social apeal.
->16.Apeal to lower middle class.
->17.Apeal to working class.
->18.Death penalty for common criminals, whatever creed or race. (inc. crime of money lending for profits - therefore an atack on the Jews).
->20.Education. Sets up place of education as indoctrination in favour of the state. Education for all German citizens.
->21.State responsibility for health. Building strong German nation.
->22.Abolition of professional army & formation of a peoples army. (vs ToV)
->23.State control of the media. (no non-Germans (ie.Jews) involved in newspapers etc.)
->24.Freedom for all reliqious denominations (apart from Jews and anyone else who the NAZIs don't like)
-->Common interest before individual interests.
->25.Centralisation of power.
•Strong thread of anti-semitism running through 25 point plan.
•V. few of the ideas are new but the combination of the demands by the NAZIs is new.
*=Major points.
-------------------------
[CORE PRINCIPLES]
•Lebenstraum = Living space - specificly taking teritory in Poland & W. USSR.
•Anti-semitism.
•National Sentiment - policys apeal to peoples sense of nationalism.
-------------------------
•Heirachy of races.
->Aryan Race
->Nordic / Anqlo-Saxons
->Slavs
->Blacks
->Jews
-------------------------
•National = extreme Riqht wing
•Socialism = extreme Left wing
•however NAZI = National Socialism
->an oxymoronic fusion of Nationism & Socialism
•It is likely that Hitler wrote the Nationalist points & Drexler wrote the socialist points.
•Because of the two conflictinq strands of policy w/ in NAZI policy there was continual tension in the party
->Socialist elements of the party finally defeated in 'Night of the Long Knives' by Nationalist elements.
-->Some of the socialist points of the 25 points ditched eventually.
•Both Nationalist & Socialist strands agreed on some policies.
->Eg.Anti-semitism, education & pe, revokation of ToV etc.
- - - - - - - - - -
•••[Example Question]•••
25 pts. of NP in 1920's
Q:What were the main points of 25 points of the NAZI proqramme in the 1920's
•Revoke the terms of the ToV.
->Expicitly stated
->Included making Austria part of Germany<-
•Germans have the right to have livinq space.
->Lebenstraum
-->Asumes German superiority - Germans entitled to land etc.
•Many points appeal to German national sentiment.
->Union of all Germans in a qreater Germany. CAnchlus)
•Number of points appeal to Lower middle classes (poor or disposessed etc.)
->Free education etc.
•Anti-semitic theme throuqhout.
->Eg. Supposed religious freedom apart from Jews
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Anti-semitism.
•Pre WW1 largest attack on Jews was 'Night of Broken Glass' w/ 71 Jews killed.
•Anything bad in NAZI Germany know as 'Jewish'
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Morality.
The quest for a balanced society.
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Exam question notes
•••[Essay Questions]•••
•Focus on specific time frame.
•Keep focus on specific question.
->I promise to answer the question, the whole question & nothing but the question.
•Plan essay before hand
->3 mins or so max.
->Eg. Ec, Pol, Mil, Soc problems.
•Opening : either deal w/ problem words in title -or- Outline political problems.
•Amalgamate both parts of a two part question for best marks. Eg. Combine information & analysis
- - - - - - - - - -
•••[Source Questions]•••
•Answer the Question.
•Leave a gap between parts A, B, C etc.
•Spend the apropriate time on each answer.
•Use brief (ie < 5 words) quotations from the source.
->Acknowledge the soures - eg. [source A]
•When defining a phrase break it down.
->Eg. 'Explain what was meant by xyz abc'. By xyz it means.... By abc it means.
•Dont make general points - everything must be relevant.
•Recognise difference between date of writing & date of publication.
•Questions to ask of source:
+Who wrote it?
+Who was it written for? (intended audience)
+Why was it written?
+When was it written?
+When was it published?
•Use full sentances.
->Unaccepted abrv. = ToV, LoN.
- - - - - - - - - -
Grades for 15 mark questions.
8 = D
7 = E
- - - - - - - - - -
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Weimar problems 1918/19
Exam Q.
Q:What problems faced the Weimar Republic in 1918/19 & how successfully had they been solved by 1924?
Structure : Ec, Pol, Mil, Soc problems.
•Root problems
->Loss of WW1
->Political vacuum
-->Kaisers abdication & political collapse.
•Economic problems:
->War loans.
->Lack of raw materials.
-->Throuqh loss of teritory.
->Unemployment.
-->Returninq soldiers & dislocation of industry.
->Careful mention of reparations as they did not start being paid till 1920.
->Lack of trading parteners.
->Inflation problem (but not as serious as Hyper inflation)
•Political problems.
->Conversion from monarchy to republic.
-->Republic has no constitution or official authority.
-->Declaration of republic is in effect a Coup d'état.
-->Total change of political system.
->Republic was not widely supported.
-->Opposition from: Left Wing (Spartacists, Socialists, Eisner in Munich) & Right Wing (Freikorps, Monarchists) & Civil Service, Teachers, Judiciary.
->Problem in getting the Weimar republic accepted.
->Political violence from opposition to republic.
->In 1919 elections Eberts socialists only got 38% of vote. Demonstrates lack of majority of overall popular support.
•Social problems.
->1.7 million men dead.
->Inbalance in population.
->Great shortage of food.
-->Real starvation.
->Educatinq people in democracy.
•Military problems.
->Resultant from defeat.
->Limitations on military by ToV.
-->Unable to defend from percieved threat of communisn.
-->Humiliation from loss of autonomy in military matters.
->ToV was imposed w/ negotiation.
SOLUTIONS.
•Economic - some problems solved but new problems gained.
->Industry had converted from wartime to peacetime.
->Unemployment solved w/ many people back to work.
->Reparations have become bigger problem (@ this point refer to Ruhr Valley & hyper-inflation)
->Treaty of Rapallo opened trade w/ Russia. (1922)
•Political
->Political violence had largly stopped.
->Votes demonstrate hostility to Weimar Republic but people accepted.
->Weimar Republic still in power.
[End of lesson]
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•••[Event notes]•••
Place holder for Unit 1 & 2 Event notes
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Rise of NAZI party 1920 - 1924
- - - - - - - - - -
•••[Origins]•••
•Origins of NAZI party in DAP (German Workers Party)
->Became NSDAP (National Socialist German Workers Party)
- - - - - - - - - -
•••[Membership]•••
•1919 NAZI party has 7 members.
•By end of 1920 party has up to 2000 members.
->All in Munich area.
•August 1921 party has 3300 members.
->One branch outside Munich although still v. geographically limited.
(a)Do we trust NAZI Party
- - - - - - - - - -
•••[History]•••
•31 march 1920 Hitler leaves army and works for NAZI Party fulltime.
->In charge of propoganda.
•Late 1920's NAZI Party took control of (bought) Volkischer Beobachter (VB) newspaper.
->VB translated is Peoples Observer.
->Purchase assisted by Röhm
->Initially only published twice a week.
->VB read by all qood NAZIs
-->Later in 1930's had v. wide circulation.
->Editor of paper = Hitler.
•1921 - Drexler is chairman of NAZI party.
->Hitler was in Berlin
-->Drexler merged NAZI party with another Völkisch party.
--->Hitler was furious. (Wanted to keep total control)
- - - - - - - - - -
(a)Völkisch party - blood & soil. Belief in pure Aryan race & great suspicion of business & industry. Its more morally right to work on soil (manual labour)
->V. Riqht wing
->Anti-communist
->Anti ToV
- - - - - - - - - -
•11 July 1921 - Hitler resigned from the NAZI party in response to merger.
->Issues ultimatum - will only join the NAZI party again if he is made chairman & given dictatorial power.
-->Drexler eventually sides w. Hitler & Hitler rejoins party w. dictatorial power. (remains till 1945)
•Munich was always home of the NAZI party.
->Led to tensions w. branches in other places. Anoyed at having to serve Munich branch.
•Party Organisation : NAZIs divided country into districts (Gau)
->Each had a leader (Gauleiter)
-->District leaders appointed by Munich branch (ie. Hitler)
--->Gives Hitler control.
•Party had 'sports & gymnastic' section which soon became the SA in 1921
->SA led by Röhm.
->SA = young men willing to fiqht.
-->They make an Oath of loyalty to Hitler.
->SA set up to protect the party @ meetinqs & to disrupt meetings of other qroups (eg. Communists)
- - - - - - - - - -
•Sturmfahne = Storm Fiqhters (SA) flag.
->Great deal of importance placed on flag.
- - - - - - - - - -
•1923 Atempt to ban NAZI party by Munich authorities.
->NAZIs percieved as threat to authorities - feared NAZI atempt to gain control (putsch)
->Hitler had promised action to the SA.
-->Authority clamp down meant it did not take place.
--->Left SA frustrated.
---->Lead to problems for Hitler in managinq SA.
•8-9 Nov 1923 Munich Beer Hall Putsch
->See other notes.
->Putsch failed - Hitler imprisoned for 9 months.
•Rosenburg took over actinq control of the NAZI party
•NAZI party stood in 1924 elections.
->Hitler in jail @ time - did not want the party to stand.
-->Woried that if they saw success his position in the party would be undermined.
--->Hitler could not stand in the election (even if he were not in prison) as he was not a German citizen.
•1924 elections saw NAZI party (under name of Anti-semitic co-alition) gain 9% of the vote & qet 32 seats.
•Had Hitler not been in prison NAZI party would not have stood in elections.
->NAZI party unlikely to have achieved success w/ out political elements.
- - - - - - - - - -
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Events 1920-1929
•ToV siqned - Scheidemann resigned rather than sign ToV.
•1922 -Treaty of Rapalo
->Siqned by Ratheneau (who was later assassinated)
•NAZI party violence 1921 onwards.
->Street violence.
(•1922 - March on Rome - Mussolini's revolution - Hitler wanted similar result from Beer Hall Putsch)
•1923 - Invasion of the Ruhr.
•8-9 Nov 1923 - Munich beer hall putsch
•1924 elections.
->1st co-alition gov breaks down due to economic crisis.
->NAZI party looses seats in 2nd 1924 election.
•1924 - Dawes plan ratified by Reichstag.
->Post Dawes plan there was heavy US investment in Germany. 1924-29(WSC).
•1925 - Locarno Pact
->Fixed inviolability of the French-German & Belgium-German borders.
->Aqreed on arbitration in case of dispute between Germany & Poland & Czechoslovakia.
•Sept. 1926 Germany joined LoN.
•1929 - Young Plan
•1929 - Stresemann died
•1929 - Wall St. Crash.
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•••[Background notes]•••
Unit 1&2 Background notes
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•••[Misc notes]•••
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8-9 Nov 1923 Munich Beer Hall Putch.
•State of emergency in Bavaria - Economic & Political instability
•Much political violence.
->Therefore democratic rights suspended (article 48)
•Bavaria controlled by General von Lossow, von Kahr, & Hans Ritter von Seisssr. (Known as triumvirate)
->Each man had his own political agenda.
-->Kahr = monarchist & seperatist.
-->Some conflict between them.
->Had dictatorial power.
•SA frustated @ lack of action
->Hitler had promised action.
•Hitler wanted anti-weimar triumvirate to join with him on his terms.
(•Aim of Hitler to overthrow Weimar republic.)
•Triumvirate holdinq meeting in Munich beer cellar (Bürger bräukeller).
->NAZIs took over meeting.
-->SA entered meeting & Hitler took control.
->Ludendorff came out in support of NAZI party.
(Ludendorff = war hero - famous general - greatly respeted)
•Triumvirate kidnapped.
->initialy supported NAZIs.
-->Later slipped away.
•March on Munich on morning of the 9th.
->Defeated. (by police)
- - - - - - - - - -
•Hitler, Ludendorff & Rohm put on trial in 1924 for High Treason.
->Hitler used trial as chance to make propaganda speaches.
-->Major propaganda sucess for NAZI party.
--->Hitler & NAZI party became known across Germany throuqh media coverage. (papers, wireless etc.)
•Judqe was sympathetic to NAZI party.
->Judge had tried Hitler earlier in 1921 & given liqht sentance.
-->NAZIs managed to get same Judge (not known how)
->Judge allowed Hitler to make propoganda speaches
•Ludendorff aquitted.
•Hitler got 5 year sentance.
->Judicial & Public sympathy influenced this short sentance.
->Only spent 9 months in very low security jail.
-->Whilst there he wrote Mein Kamph - (dictated to Rudolph Hess)
- - - - - - - - - -
•••[Why did the Beer Hall Putsch fail?]•••
•Only 2000 people involved.
->Simply not credible.
•Hitler had expected others to join him.
->Particularly younq army officers. (Munich garrison etc.)
•Poor planning.
•Lettinq the Triumverate go.
->Gave them time to prepare to meet uprising.
->Ludendorff's involvment. (did not know Triumverate had been kidnapped)
•Firing pins in guns removed so guns could not be fired.
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Weimar 1924-29 - Political (1)
•••[Background]•••
>President 1919-25 = Ebert
>President 1925-34 = Hindenburg
- - - - - - - - - -
•••[Political Parties]•••
During 1924-29 period many of the Political parties turned away from the ideal of democracy & became increasingly hostile to the Weimar Republic.
•SPD (Socialist Democratic Party oy Germany) - Remained loyal to Weimar constitution/republic.
->Had revolutionary past.
-->Believed in evolution not revolution but their image maintained a revolutionary tone.
->Majority of support from Trade Unions.
-->Therefore: working class.
->Agricultural workers turned away from SPD.
-->Felt SPD no longer had their interests @ heart.
->SPD had an ambivalent attitude towards the millitary.
-->Tended towards pacifism in armaments debates.
->SPD often took its lead from trade unions & did nothinq that might jepordise their support.
]->Slightly increased their electoral success 1924-29.
-->Most votes from Urban areas.
•DDP (German Democratic Party) - began to show anti-democatic tendancies.
->Breakinq up w/ internal splits.
->Declininq in electoral success 1924-29
•ZP (Central Party) - showinq anti-democatic by late 1920's.
->Largely Catholic (w/ support from a few protestants)
-->Priests v. influential in getting votes for ZP. Most of its support from Catholics across the demographic.
--->Quite possible Popes representive pursuaded ZP to select Brüninq as leader. (Brüninq later became chancellor & helped erode/destroy democracy in Germany
->1928 onwards led by Brüninq & becoming more anti-democratic.
•DVP (German People's Party) - founded 1919 by Gustav Stresemann to cary on traditions of pre-war Liberals.
->Apealed to business community & recieved support from prominant industrialists.
->Small party but usually part of the Government.
•DNVP (German National People's Party) - had to work with democracy but had no great love for democracy.
->Wide demographic of membership.
->Alfred Hugenberg (media man - owned a lot of News papers. Former director of Krupps stealworks) elected leader in 1928.
-->1929 - brouqht DNVP into alliance w/ NAZI party to oppose Younq Plan.
->Good electoral success but possibly lost seats to NAZI party.
•>Summary.
->DNVP & ZP shifted to riqht in 1928
•••[Gov structure]•••
•Multi-party co-alition Gov.
•1925 - Ebert died
->Leadinq to presidenial elections.
-->1.9 million votes for Thälmann (Communist)
-->13.7 million votes for Marx (Central party)
-->14.6 million votes for Hindenburg
NOTE - Over 1/2 the voters voted for a candidate who did not support democracy in 1925 presidential election.
'no love amoung the German people for Democracy'
•Hidenburg did not represent any political party - WW1 hero, ran war council in WW1 - Hidenburg did not really believe in parliamentary democracy.
->In power 1925-34
->President has power to select chancellor & to suspend democracy w/ article 48
- - - - - - - -
•••[Party Politics & Foreign Policy 1924-1930]•••
•15 Seperate cabinets 1919 - 1928.
•1928 - Stresemann helped put together 'Great Coalition' from SPD, DDP, ZP, BVP & DVP.
->More interest in domestic affairs than international.
-->SDP threatened split over agenda for 'Food for the poor' vs. Building of battle cruiser to protect Germanys Baltic coast.
(a)--->Note : building a cruiser provides job & catalyses economy.
--->Issue of national pride also involved.
--->Economic argument = cruiser / Humanitarian argument = food for our children / National pride = cruiser.
->Goverment in Germany cannot exist without the SDP. (SDP=largest single party)
•1929 Plebiscite (backed by Hitler) turned into vote to see if people supported Weimar republic.
->Initaially referendum on Younq Plan.
->5.8million voted against
•Dec. 1929 - 1.2 million workers on benefits. Germany facing serious economic problems pre-WSC.
->Should the Gov. spend or save?
->Should it cut unemp(right winq). benefit or raise taxes(left winq)?
-->Coalition made no Economic policies could be decided upon.
--->Gov. eventually colapsed.
•Jan 1930 - 2.3 million workers on benefits.
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Philosophy A
a) Briefly explain what is meant by the view that belief in God is a basic belief.
Belief in God as a basic belief is analogous to, for example, belief in ones own existence. It is something that appeals to no external evidence. Such a view regards God as self-evident and belief in God as foundational, meaning it is a necessary assumption that may justify other beliefs, but itself requires no justification other than an assertion that it is a basic fact. For example, an individual's belief that they exist is foundational to their understanding of the universe, they find there is no need to appeal to reason in establishing their existence; they just are. A non-basic belief is an extrapolation upon evidence, a fact that is not necessarily self-evident. For example, if one sees a puddle of water on the ground and then believes if has rained, they have selected a conclusion that is extrapolated. It is just as possible that the puddle could be the result of someone washing his or her car on that spot, but the non-basic belief that it has rained seems to the observer that most valid conclusion to draw based upon the evidence presented and their past experience of the causes of water on the ground. As Hume put forward, 'In the end we must take reality for granted', those regarding belief in God as basic may argue that His existence must be taken as for granted.
It is also worth noting that some would advance that a basic belief in God can be based upon basic evidence, such as the existence of the world. In the same way an individual can say the evidence for their existence is the fact they can see their hand in front of their face, then an advocate of basic belief in God would claim similarly the fact we can see an ordered creation leads us to God with no auxiliary reasoning required.
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Weimar 1924-29 - General
•••[The 'Golden Years' of Weimar Germany]•••
•Period of relative political stablity.
->No attempted coups to overthrow gov.
->V. little violence on the streets.
->Political stability on international stage as well.
->Germany not occupied or @ war w/ anyone
•Period of relative economic stablity.
->No serious inflation problems.
-->Economic problems not solved but lesser than <1924 & 1929>
•Cultural flowering
->Art movements etc
->Architecture.
->Literature, painting, film & music.
-->Particularly an urban phenomenon. Berlin was cultural capital.
--->Many of the top artists Jewish & / or left-wing. Artists=individualist.
•>Weimar allowed flowering of individualism.
->NAZI party did not like individualism & crushed/repressed it when they came to power.
•Infuential fiqure in Golden Years = Gustav Stresemann
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- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
•••[Events]•••
•1924 - Dawes plan ratified by Reichstag.
->Post Dawes plan there was heavy US investment in Germany. 1924-29(WSC).
•1925 - Locarno Pact
->Fixed inviolability of the French-German & Belgium-German borders.
->Aqreed on arbitration in case of dispute between Germany & Poland & Czechoslovakia.
•Sept. 1926 Germany joined LoN.
->Shows acceptability of Germany.
•Germany improved its relationship w/ Russia.
->German troops trained in Russia.
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Germany seen as a 'Bulwark against communism'.
->Stronq defense - hence why Germany allowed to exeed 100,000 millitary post 1926.
- - - - - - - - - -
•••[Violence]•••
•Only 24 NAZI's killed in street fights 1924-29 with the KPD. Hundreds injured.
•KPD had 'Red Front' paramilitary force of 12,000.
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Gustav Stresemann
- - - - - - - - - -
•Son of a Berlin publican.
->Enjoyed successful academic & business career.
•Noted for his virulent riqht wing views in his youth.
•Entered Reichstag in 1907 - experienced politician. Achedemically able. Knew about business.
•1918 - co-founded Peoples Party (DVP) - oriqionally a monarchist party but steered by Stresemann (early 1920's) to support Weimar republic until his death when it swung back to the Right.
•Was appalled by Political murders & left extremist past to pursue 'Least worst of all possible options'
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•Briefly chancellor 1923 (for 103 days)
•Foreign Minister 1923-29
•Never an enhusiastic supporter of the Weimar Republic.
•>Wanted :
->Endinq of reparations.
->Foreign troops to leave German soil.
->Millitary parity with others for Germany. (End of millitary limits on Germany)
->Return of some of the land that had become Poland.
->Links w/ Austria strenghened.
•>Main aim: Full sovereignty & independance for Germany.
->Stresemann never clearly stated these views - worked to achieve these points throuqh discussion & compromise.
- - - - - - - - - -
•Stresemann ended passive resistance.
•Worked with Schacht to introduce a more stable currency.
•Put down communist uprisinq in saxony.
- - - - - - - - - -
•Stresemann despised by extreme right-wing.
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Philosophy B
b) Outline Pascal's Wager and explain what it is intended to show.
Pascal attempted to evaluate whether a belief in God through faith can be just justified by virtue of reason and to do this looked at the situation in terms of a 'wager'. Pascal's Wager looks at the possible outcomes of a faith in God who could either exist or not exist. If one believes in God and God does exist, then one will benefit from this, whereas if God doesn't exist, the individual looses nothing. However, if an individual does not believe in God and God does exist, then that individual potentially looses out on eternal life (presuming of course the character and nature of God as that held by the Christian tradition), whereas if God does not exist then again the individual will see no loss. Therefore, belief in God can only lead to either an actively beneficial (eternal life) or a passive outcome (nothing after death), whereas non-belief in God could lead to either a passive outcome (nothing after death) or an actively detrimental outcome (no eternal life or hell). To a betting man it would surly be more reasonable to place ones support behind the side where the odds of a positive outcome are better and where the losses are limited. Following from this, Pascal advances that it is more rational and perhaps a 'safer bet' to believe in God. Pascal also notes that the belief must be accompanied by a Christian lifestyle for the wager to be functional, however whether reason can lead to faith, or can only be used to underpin it is drawn into question.
Pascal's Wager suggests that we cannot establish the existence of God through empirical evidence or rational reasoning, but instead argues that faith in Gods existence can be claimed rational. This differs from the view that faith is an irrational leap to a conclusion without facts, instead claiming that it can be a rational leap to a conclusion without facts; a small, but extremely significant difference.
The issue is raised as to whether a belief derived from a logical bet would satisfy an all-knowing Christian God who requires the faith of His followers. Belief based upon 'favourable odds' would not seem to fit with the idea of faith, as it would be an attempt at deceiving God; He would know you did not truly believe. However, Pascal does assert that his Wager and its reasoning is intended to initiate a Christian lifestyle, not to support it for good. Instead he claims that if one sticks at Church life and a belief in God it will develop into a faith in God and stop being a 'pretend' faith.
Pascal is essentially attempting to support faith with rational reasoning justifying the logic of belief to the unbeliever. Summed up simply 'It's a safer bet to believe in God'.
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Philosophy C
c) Assess the view that faith rather than reason is necessary for religious belief.
Reason can be used to lead to more one conclusion. All reasoning is based upon base assumptions and depending upon those assumptions the conclusion drawn from exactly the same line of reasoning may be grossly divergent. Wittgenstein talked of this in terms of language games and how the conclusions reached depended on the context of the words being used to evaluate a particular issue. Thus it becomes apparent that if all reasoning is based upon foundations or assumptions, which are not themselves justified by reason then even in reasoning there is a degree of faith. For example, a reasoned argument to God such as the 'First Cause' approach requires belief in the assumption that everything must be caused by something before it, for which ultimate proof cannot, within our current sphere of understanding, ever be found. Therefore, by virtue of Ockam's razor which dictates that the best option to believe in is the simplest if would seem a direct faith in God is simpler thus more desirable than the contrived routes taken to establish the existence of God through reasoned arguments. Whilst this
There are two potential schools of thought regarding what religious belief is, and under Wittgenstein's ideas they could be termed as concepts existing within two different language games thus not necessarily comparable. These two views of 'Belief in' God, and 'Belief that' God exists, are largely concurrent with a religious belief from faith, and a religion belief from reason, in that order.
Aquinas, in his works from which the basics of Catholic theology on the issue have been drawn, adopts approaches to look at both 'Belief in' and 'Belief that' God exists, using reasoned arguments to establish the existence of God (through Natural Theology) and arguments based upon faith and religious experience to create an understanding of the character of God (through Revealed Theology).
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Weimar 1924-29 - Political (2)
(cont.)
•1930 - Stresemann got agreement for removal of foreign troops.
->Post WSC Britain could not afford to maintain troops.
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•6 Govs 1923-1928 & 15 Cabinets.
Communists & NAZI & DNVP set on destruction of Weimar
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•••[Domestic impact of Stresemann's foreign policy]•••
•Stresemann's policy based around concept of fulfilment (of reparations).
->Angered riqht-wing
->Also meant keeping to terms of the ToV.
-->Stresemann public face is different from his private view.
•>Fulfilment policy means;
->Economic drain from reparations.
->Acceptinq millitary limitations.
->Acceptinq ToV borders.
••Achievments of foreign policy....
•French troops left Ruhr 1924 (Stresemann & Dawes = major negotiators)
-->Security for Dawes loans = German railway system & a measure of foreign control over nat. Bank.
->Policy successfully led to int. nat. investment-particularly US.
•Locarno Pact of 1925
->Increased political stability.
•1926 Stresemann mainly responsible for German entry into LoN.
•1929 Stresemann insrumental in getting the Young plan accepted.
->Reduced total reparations from 132 billion marks to 37 billion marks.
•1930 last foreign troops leave German soil.
->Reducing foreign troops in Germany helps political stability & confidence in the Gov.
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Weimar 1924-29 -Economics
- - - - - - - - - -
•Mid to late 1920's Germany had a stable currency with low interest rates.
•1924-30 - $5bn invested in Germany.
•1928 - Industrial production exceeded pre-war levels.
•Manual workers in trade unions benefited from economic prosperity.
->Trade unions achieved significant increase in real wages.
•Increased welfare payments benefited urban working class.
•German state improved quality of social housing.
- --- -
•Gov. expenditure was higher than gov. income.
•Professional middle class did not benefit greatly.
•Agricultural workers suffered.
->Prices of agricultural goods were low.
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Analysing Cartoons.
•1. Read the caption.
•2. Take note of the Dates & source
•3. Work down picture in catchphase style.
•4. Look for representative characters.
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•••[Questions to ask]•••
•Who are the people?
•What are the objects?
•What do the words say?
•What is the aim of the cartoonist?
->Who was cartoon for?
•What is the audience of this cartoon?
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•Characters are likely to be stereotypes.
->Ensure recoqnition of Jewish(oi. biqnose) & Aryan stereotypes.
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•••[Revision Notes]•••
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ToV & Weimar (1)
•Opposition to ToV
->Extreme right
War guilt was insult to national pride. Restrictions to millitary hated. Didn't like ban to Anchluss.
->Weimar Politicians.
Opposed economic terms. Philip Schiedemann resigned rather than sign ToV.
->Those who were in lost territory.
->Those who lost control of colonies.
->Army.
•Right-wing opposition to Weimar Republic
->DDP, KPD (Communists), SPD
As they do not believe in democracy.
->Sparicists
•Left-wing opposition to Weimar Republic.
->Extreme right-wing.
Such as the NAZI party & DNVP
->Freikorps.
•Who supported Weimar Republic.
->Ebert & SPD (majority socialists)
Some for idealistic beliefs (Ebert & Scheidemann). Some just in it for the power (eg. Erzberger)
->Alies from WWI
•Use of Article 48
->Ebert used to preserve democracy.
Calling of General strike to prevent success of Kapp putsch in 1920.
•Economic problems of 1918-23
->Reparation bills
->Inflation (hyper)
->Post war unemp etc.
->War loans.
•Solutions
->1923 - Produced new currency.
->Ended passive resistance.
See link for more details. [Weimar problems 1918/19]
•Political problems of 1918-23.
->Weimar consitution - PR forming multi-party co-alition gov.
->Article 48
->Political uprisinqs.
Freikorp - white terror (right-wing)
Sparticists (Communist - left-wing)
Kapp putsch.
Bavarian seperatism.
->Dislike of system by teachers, civil servants, judiciary etc.
See link for more details. [Weimar problems 1918/19]
•Schacht's contribution to success of Weimar Republic
->Stabalised currency in 1923
•Ebert's contribution to success of Weimar Republic.
->Accepted ToV.
->Helped draw up & supported constitution.
->Dealing w/ Kapp putsch.
-->However qeneral strike led to worker uprisinqs.
->Used Article 48 to prevent Political violence & appointed Cuno as chancellor.
-->Not in spirit of democracy.
Because Ebert helped write constitution is he responsible for its terms.
•Stresemann's contribution to success of Weimar Republic.
->Policy of fulfilment.
->Ended passive resistance (1923)
->Put down Saxony communist uprising (1923)
->Got Germany accepted on international staqe again.
Locarno etc.
•Contributions of Political parties to success & failures of Weimar Republic?
(note: requires identification of aims & therefore success & failures.)
Aims: Establishing itself.
->SDP
+Helped establish Weimar Republic & was involved in majority of cabinets.
+Always believed in democracy.
-Advocated PR system
->ZP
+Initialy involved in establishing Weimar Republic & sustaining it.
-1928 became increasingly anti-democratic.
->DNVP
-Led by Hugenberg from 1928 - became incresingly right-wing
•Effect of Plebescites on the Governing Germany
->Most important = plebescite over Young Plan.
(Real meaning is to do with who supports parliamentary democracy. 5.8 million voted against thus perceived as a 5.8 million vote against democracy.)
->Plebescites delay the implementation of legislation.
•Outline the path of re-armament in the 1920's.
->German armament limited by ToV to only 100,000 troops, no airforces and a heavily limited Navy
->Treaty of Rapalo with Russia led to Germany secretly training troops in the Soviet Union.
->1920's saw gradual rearmament.
->1928 - Decided to build new Battle Cruiser.
Note : was not the NAZIs who broke terms of ToV first - it had happened before that. Only thing the NAZIs did new was to build the Luftwaffe.
•List of events to show increasing acceptance of Germany as part of the international community.
>1922 - Rapallo
>1924 - Dawes plan.
>1925 - Locarno Pact (accepted borders)
>1926 - Germany joined LoN.
>1929 - Young Plan
•Did articles 48 do more harm or more good to democracy in Germany?
->Used by Ebert to save democracy.
->Used by Bruning in 1930's to destroy democracy.
->Also used by Hitler to destroy democracy.
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ToV & Weimar (2)
•To what extent were the allies responsible for making Germany ungovernable in the inter-war years?
->Allies imposed ToV which did great deal of harm to ease of governing Germany.
However Germany could have been broken up for millitaraly occupied.
->Occupation of the Ruhr damaged economy.
->Implementation of democracy by Germans under PR system was perhaps more a problem than in the imposition of democracy.
•Demonstrate that the democratic spirit of the Weimar Republic was being breached in the period 1919-33
->Apointment of Cuno.
->Use of Article 48
-->E.g. Kapp Putsch
->Sitaution in the Ruhr - 1923 - Gov calling for passive resistance.
->Went aginsts ToV in militarisation etc.
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The NAZI party 1924 - 29 (1)
•••[Background]•••
The dual approach of violence and democracy adopted by NAZI party post 1924 was essential to them achieving power. (Adopted due to NAZI party success in elections whilst Hitler was in prison.)
- - - - - - - - - -
•1924 - NAZI party banned
->Party standing in election went under name of Anti-Semitic League.
•When Hitler was released from prison he promised to work within the constitution.
•Feb 1925 - Hitler allowed to re-launch the NAZI party.
->Demonstates sympathy for extreme right.
->Hitler remained banned from public speaking in many states.
-->He later broke this ban, but very little was done to it.
•1925 - 29 known as : "The assertion of the primacy of the Führer"
->Period during which Hitler makes himself supreme within the NAZI party.
•••[Internal Organisation & Conflicts]•••
•1924-27 period - NAZI party run from its HQ in Munich.
->Munich clique.
-->Officials (bureaucrats) within party dictating policy.
--->Accused of not listening to anyone else.
•Mid 1920's onwards, NAZI party had become a national organisation.
->Divided country into a number of Districts.
-->Each district had as NAZI party official acting as a leader in that area. (known as a Gauleiter)
--->These district leaders appointed by Hitler.
•Conflict arose between Gauleiters(district leaders) in West & North and Munich Clique.
->Two strands within NAZIsm existing.
-->One strand emphasising Nationalism (led by Adolf Hitler)
-->Secondary strand emphasising the needs of the working class (socialism)
•Gregor Strasser (Gauleiter in favour of socialist strand of NAZIism) led opposition to Munich Clique.
->Leads the 'Working Group' of Gauleiters.
-->(a)Goebbels was member of the working group (Goebbels later became NAZI propaganda minister).
-->Working group puts forwards policies which Hitler does not fully support.
E.g. The way in which the property of the Kaiser should be delt with.
--->Hitler becomes worried about the loss of countrol of policy making this may lead to.
If 'Working Group' can make policy then who else can?
•14th Feb 1926 - Bamberg Conference called by Hitler to address problem of 'Working Group'
->Hitler makes not an explict attack to Working Party but asserts his control and defeats policies of Working Party.
-->Through force of argument and personality opposition to Hitler from within NAZI party ceases.
->>After Bamberg conference there was very little opposition to Hitler from within the NAZI party.
•1926 - 25 points of the NAZI party programme of the 1920s made official NAZI party policy.
•Nov 1926 - Goebbels makes his peace with Hitler and becomes Gauleiter of Berlin.
->Stasser did not agree with Hitler and continues to oppose.
•Feb 1926 onwards - Hitler has dictatorial power over NAZI party. - Assertion of the Primacy of the Führer.
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•••[Actions of the NAZI party]•••
•Between 1924 & 1929 NAZI party did not have a great deal of electoral success in the Reichstag.
•1925-29 - Majority of work of NAZI party done by SA.
->Acting as public face of NAZI movement.
->Aiming to become master of the streets.
-->Fighting vs. Communists (Red Front) for mastery of the Streets.
->Aiming to become master of the state.
(The Millitart violent aspect of NAZI rise to power)
•SA was there to serve the party.
->(Source 40 in Noakes & Pridham) Hitler dictated this in a letter to the leader.
-->Emphasis on sports activities rather that millitary drill. (to reduce possibility of getting banned)
-->Aim of SA to build 'Nationalist, Socialist, Racialist state' & achieve the 'destruction of Marxism'
--->Not the small picture of removing a local enemy etc.
--->SA as a promoter of the Aryan Race.
-->By end of 1933 SA gains 3 million members.
•1928 - NAZI party had 12 seats in the Reichstag, Was not greatly successful on the national stage.
•Late 1920's Hitler began to set up a State within a State
->Set up Foreign Affairs Dept. Press Dept. Agriculture Dept. etc.
-->Mirroring structure of the State.
--->Sounds very impressive.
Continued in (2)
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Pointless facts.
•Propaganda minister Goebbels nicknamed : Poisen Dwarf
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The NAZI Party 1924 - 29 (2)
...cont.
•Late 1920's NAZI party set up a number of organisation for specific groups.
->National Socialist Teachers League (NSLB)
->National Socialist Schoolchildrens League (NSSB)
->Hitler Youth
•Actions of SA 1920's
->Defending NAZI party meetings.
->Breaking up Communist party meeting.
-->Many activities of SA allowed by police as they were both anti-communist.
->Took part in Torch Lit processions.
->Held Rally's
->Went to the church services.
-->All gives a good impression.
Two faces of the NAZI party: violent and public spirited.
• 1928 was very important year for NAZI party - a shift in the party.
•By 1932 SA had 2 million members under command of Ernst Röhm.
->Feared that Ernst Rohm wanted to take over running of the army and to create a peoples army (25 points).
->Army felt threatened by size of SA.
•Hitler was not sure he could trust the SA.
->Hitler raised status of the SS (under Himler) in 1929.
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•MISC
•Harzburg Front = Group of conservative nationalist politicians who opposed Brunings government. Some NAZI's wanted to continue in the Harzburg Front.
->Shows 1931 NAZI's are co-operating with other right-wing parties.
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Germany 1929 - 32
- - - - - - - - - -
•1929 Political & International Events
->Wall St. Crash.
->Stresemann died.
->Young Plan accepted.
•Unemployment rising and gov. could not afford to pay benefits.
->Cabinet split over whether to cut benefits of increase taxes for those in work.
•Economic crisis was not a result totally of the Wall St. Crash. Economic depression had been already present in Germany. Parlicularly economic problems in agriculture.
->Confidence was falling throughout late 1920's.
•Economic problems created a political crisis. Government resigned in March 1930.
->Last fully democratic government in Germany. Gov. became increasinly right-wing post 1930.
•American businessmen withdrew their investments in Germany in 1930.
->Major problem since high investment in Germany post 1924 Dawes plan,
•By Jan 1930 - 2 Million Unemployed.
•By 1932 - 6 Million unemployed in Germany.
->Major economic crisis.
•As unemployment and economic crisis grew so did political instability.
->Cabinet resigned March 1930.
->Support for extreme right and left wing grew as political crisis manifested.
-->Was percieved that democracy & Weimar republic had failed in letting Germany get into the situation that it was in.
->People scared about a return to the 1918 anarchy.
•Bruning became Chancellor March 1930 (was Anti-Nazi, member of the ZP)
->Bruning was determined to enforce his economic plans. (Raising taxes etc.)
-->Reichstag would not accept Bruning policies.
--->So Bruning disolved the Reichstag. Delayed calling elections. (Acts were withing the constitution [Article 48] but not really in the spirit of the constitution or democracy.)
•Election in September 1930
->Bruning was convinced people would see the logic in his economic policies.
-->However, Extreme left-wing & right-wing had great success in the elections. (Very important election. Rise of the extremists within the Reichstag)
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Why did NAZI party do well out of the economic crisis.
•NAZI party gave people hope.
->Promised bread.
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Domestic Stability & Foreign Relations.
- - - - - - - - - -
•Timed Essay Question.
"In what ways did Germany's changing relations with other European Powers contribute to domestic stability in Germany (15)"
- - - - - - - - - -
STRUCTURE #1
•Begin with explanation of what Germany's internation relationships were like with European powers in 1918.
->Only friendly with Austria
->Anger between Russia and Germany over Brest-Litosvk
->Just ended being at way with France, UK, US etc.
•The outline the changes by 1929
->Improved relationships with UK, Fr etc.
->Still fear of Russian communism but treaty of Rapallo.
•>Because the essay is about changing relationships I could compare the situation in 1918 with that in 1929.
->Structure in paragraphs on their relations with each different country.
-->Need to emphasise the way in which the change affected domstic stability,
STRUCTURE #2
•Domestic Stability
->Define phrase 'Domestic Stability'.
-->Domestic = At home
-->Stability = No change.
->Economic Stability - Less change (e.g. No HyperInflation etc)
•Germany became more stable 1924-29 (Golden Years of Weimar)
•Need to emphasise the fact that relations with Germany's European neighbours changed over time.
- - - - - - - - - -
•When reparations payments were reduced under the terms of the Dawes plan Britain, France etc. were involved.
->Improved Germany's political and economic stability.
•Hindenburg's election in 1925.
->Proof of more stability?
->A govermental change by election instead of my revolution.
•Germany relations with Poland.
->Lot of Germans in Poland.
->Many Germans believed Poland should be part of Germany.
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Exam Essay Question Notes
•Make sure everything written is relevant to answering the question.
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The NAZI party 1930 - 33
•1/3 of Germany supported NAZI party in 1932 (evident in presidential elections)
->A lot for a multi-party system.
•SA banned April 1932 but ban lifted in Summer 1932.
->Due to fear of a polish attack upon Germany. Schleicher (Reichswer) thought SA could help defend.
->Schleicher (in name of the Reichswehr (Army)) appeared to be sympathetic towards the NAZI's (Schleicher = conservative national - right-wing - not NAZI)
-->Schleicher hated Brüning's government. Tries to bring it down using von Papen (ZP)
•May 1932 Brüning resigned.
->von Papen became Chancellor.
-->Not even von Papens own ZP party did not support his chancellorship.
•Hitler refused to join von Papen's cabinet because he expected von Papen to fail and he didn't want the NAZI's to be tainted with failure.
->Hitler wanted all power or nothing - not prepared to form a coalition with other right-wing parties.
•NAZI become largest single party in Germany in 1932 election.
->Was violence attached to this election (street violence between left-wing & right-wing)
•Many Germans supported the NAZI party policies even if they did not vote for them.
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Text: Descartes' "Meditations" (a)
a) With close reference to the passage:
i) Why is the wax a particularly well-chosen example for Descartes' purpose?
Descartes lists the qualities of the wax, that is has 'sweetness of honey', 'smell of the flowers', 'colour, shape and size', and says that 'if you tap it, it will emit a sound'. Therefore it is clear that the wax appeals to all the senses; taste, smell, sight, touch and hearing. This makes it a good example for evaluating what can be known about an item.
ii) Identify what Descartes claims to know clearly and distinctly about the wax.
Descartes, based upon the change of state he has seen in the wax, attempts to '[set] aside everything that does not belong to the wax'. He is left with what he claims are the only clear and distinct things by which he can know the wax; it is 'extended, flexible and malleable'. Essentially this clear and distinct knowledge concerns simply the existence of a body of wax extended in space.
iii) Briefly describe one purpose of the wax example.
One aspect of the wax example is a step to ascertain that there is something that exists outside of Descartes' own mind. He asserts that his 'conception…of the wax is not the production of the faculty of imagination', because his imagination could not 'embrace [the] infinity' of similar changes in the shape of the wax that could potentially exist in its different forms. As Descartes is ascribing the qualities of being 'flexible and malleable' to the wax, as well as that of being extended in space, then he needs to find out whether these qualities are the product of his own mind, or of an external stimulus. ?????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????
Shows when perception is with mind not senses. Against knowledge through senses.
Knows himself better.
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Text: Descartes' "Meditations" (b)
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Text: Descartes' "Meditations" (c) 1
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Text: Descartes' "Meditations" (c) 2
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Rise of NAZI party (extra)
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Who supported the NAZI's?
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•••[Notes]•••
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Rise of & opposition to NAZIs
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•••[Auxillary Notes]•••
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Descartes Website.
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Source Questions.
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Reichstag Fire.
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Reichstag Fire onward...
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Enabling act.
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Sylabus outline for life in Hitler's Germany.
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Concepts within Nazism
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Nazi economics
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Strands in Nazism
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Economic actions of Nazi gov.
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Hitlers leadership.
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Rearmament
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Misc notes
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Working class in Germany
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German Workers Front
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Employement
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Social outsiders.
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Women.
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Children.
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Anti-Semitism
b) Outline Descartes' application of the method of doubt.
Descartes begins his meditations with the aim of discovering what things he can be certain of, for this it is required that he doubts all his knowledge for which he has no absolute justification. This essentially requires him to doubt absolutely everything within his mind, as this is just accumulated knowledge that he has not checked for validity at the point where he gained it. Descartes however accepts that to doubt absolutely everything in his mind would be an infinite and wholly impractical task, but instead suggests that one doubt can bring down all his beliefs, much like removing the cornerstone from a building will make the structure collapse. Therefore Descartes moves to doubt the existence of physical things, supposing that it is just as plausible to think that they are the product of deceptions in his mind created by an evil demon, as it is to regard them as truly existing in reality.
Descartes moves on to question his own existence, and comes to the conclusion that as he is doubting, he must exist, although he can only conclude that he exists as a 'thinking thing' and not as a physical creature.
From this basic certainty Descartes then works back through his beliefs applying doubt to them to try and find which of his previously held beliefs he can also be certain of. Thus he is applying doubt not to remove certainty, but to increase it.
Descartes examines the forms of deception that he finds in his life, [such as deception of the senses, citing the example of a hand taken from a hot bowl of water and placed in cool water perceiving it as cold, whereas a hand taken from cold water and placed in the same bowl would perceive it as hot. Descartes also questions whether he can trust his waking senses about anything at all, instead of simply mistrusting them about secondary characteristics such as heat.]
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Descartes finds, through attempting to apply doubt, but discovering his doubts are unfounded in some cases, he cannot doubt mathematics as it appears an innate idea in his mind, nor does be believe he can doubt God's existence for similar reasons. Thus through his processes of doubting his formerly held certainties Descartes can rebuild his beliefs and knowledge upon what he considers to be a far more valid set of certainties.
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need 4 clear & distinct ideas as foundation.
Examples : cogito, god, maths etc.
Descarte leads the reader into seeing why what we thouqht was clear & dis. may not be true.
c) Critically discuss the role played by 'clear and distinct ideas'.
Descartes uses the idea of 'clear and distinct' ideas to justify a number of his beliefs.
In meditation three Descartes suggests that it could perhaps be plausible to suppose, as a general rule, that all things he 'perceive[s] very clearly and distinctly [are] true'. He advances that in order for him to be certain of anything there must be nothing in that thought other than a clear and distinct perception of the claim he makes about that thought. For example, in the cogito, Descartes perceives clearly and distinctly that he must exist because he is thinking (and doubting his own existence), and thus because he holds only a clear and distinct view of this (all doubts have been nullified by his reasoning) it must be certain. However, Descartes doubts the validity of this general rule of 'certainly through clear and distinct perception' as he notes 'I have in the past accepted as completely clear and distinct many things that I later discovered were doubtful'. For example, in the past Descartes has believed that he perceived the physical world in this clear and distinct manner, and yet now Descartes doubts that the existence of a physical world is a certainty.
Descartes does not let this invalidate the rule however, instead arguing that he only believed that he perceived these things clearly and distinctly whereas upon consideration he now sees that he does not. This is of questionable integrity as a line of reasoning, being if Descartes has been mistaken in the past about what is clear and distinct then it is not certain that he will not be mistake again. However, it seems that Descartes believes that the only reason he was mistake in the past was because he did not apply his full intellect and thought to the issues and let himself be swayed into belief that uncertainties were clear and distinct by laziness (it is easier to just believe what seems apparent than to attempt to find what the real reality is) and habit.
Towards the beginning to mediation three Descartes accepts that whereas things such as mathematics seem clear in such a way that even the doubt that applies to the existence of physical things does not appear applicable he cannot be completely sure of even this without first establishing that he is not being deceived by some deity or demon. For example, while it may appear clear beyond doubt to him that 2 + 2 = 4, he could be being deceived. Therefore we reach the essential problem of the whole meditations and also of the concept of clear and distinct ideas. Without some sort of guarantor that what appears real is real supposing that was is clear and distinct is what is true cannot work. For surely a demon that can create the illusion of physical things could also create the illusion of things being clear and distinct even if they are in reality false.
Descartes progresses in his meditations to provide proofs for the existence of God and for the fact that God is not a deceiver, however, these proofs for Gods existence [EMPHASIS ON C&D IDEAS] set up a 'Cartesian circle' whereby the initial premise for the line of reasoning is only established as a solid foundation by the final conclusion of the reasoning. In this case, Descartes supposes that because he has a clear and distinct idea of God in his mind, and as clear and distinct ideas give him truth, then God exists. As God is perfect (a characteristic ascribed to Him by definition and the clear and distinct ideas Descartes holds) then he cannot deceived Descartes then Descartes clear and distinct ideas must be true. This use of clear and distinct ideas is, many would claim, a considerable pitfall for the whole of the mediations following the cogito.
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However, even if the defences to Descartes line of reasoning to God are accepted (the Memory Defence or the General Rule Defence [INC FOCUS ON GEN RULE DEF] which starts instead from the premise of God existing), we can still question whether all ideas that appear clear and distinct are guaranteed as true by God. Descartes claims to be wholly certain of God and unable to doubt him and uses clear and distinct ideas to justify his existence, however, he then goes on to use clear and distinct ideas to justify things he has found it possible to doubt, thus whether the concept translates from the undoubtedly to the doubtable is open to questioning.
Descartes in effect believes that with enough application of the intellect and the mind to any issue it will become obvious what is clear and distinct and what is not. He cites quantity (continuous quantity) as something he has a distinct image of and thus a constant truth, and it we accept the premise of distinct ideas giving truth is seems rational to agree that quantity is a factual, actual reality. However, if for the moment I suppose that the Cartesian circle negates the validity of believing God is not a deceiver or that clear and distinct ideas guarantee truth, or I disregard the notion of God altogether then I could suppose that I am being deceived even about such seemingly foundational truths as geometry and quantity. Essentially, lacking a non-deceiving God, I can be sure of absolutely nothing save for my existence and it is possible to suppose that even that is something I can be deceived of, if only in a way I cannot comprehend.
Clear and distinct ideas are also called into question by the existence of dreams. If I do accept that I perceive physical things clearly and distinctly and that because of that I can know that they exist, then I still have to explain how in my dreams I seem to experience physical sensations clearly and distinctly (although my memory of this is blurred when I am awake) and yet I do not believe, nor suppose it plausible to believe, that my dreams reveal reality to me. Either, I must then consider, I am being deceived in my dreams, or the concept of clear and distinct ideas giving truth does not apply in dreams. Descartes discusses the possibility of dreams being resultant from an unknown faculty of the mind, but does not come to a certain conclusion about their nature and this does leave another avenue for questioning to the meditations and their seeming reliance on clear and distinct ideas.
In conclusion, clear and distinct ideas play a major role in the mediations on the rebuilding of certainties after the process of complete and universal doubt that Descartes follows at that start of his meditative process. The premise that clear and distinct ideas give truth can only be guaranteed by circular lines of reasoning, or shaky reasoning, and thus is a quest for complete and total certainty it would seem we cannot accept it, and therefore the removal of one bloke brings down the whole wall (as Descartes supposed with the truths he had formerly held when he began his doubting). However, if we do wish to find the most probably certainties, accepting the clear and distinct ideas premise is just as viable as any alternatives, if not more so, and therefore it seems certainly worth trying.
As Descartes claims to be finding certainties I feel his use of this clear and distinct ideas concept is questionable, but it does allow for conclusion that can rebuild knowledge, as otherwise Descartes would have been left knowing only that he was 'a thinking thing', and he wanted to know more than that.
Is gods existance a c&d ideas.
Descartes
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[1918 - 1933]
•Hitlers attempt to gain chancelorship.
->Hindenburg was president.
-->Opposed to putting Hitler in power as chancellor.
--->Hindenburg had been WWI field marshall - great achiever. Hitler had been lowest rank in army in WWI and had in Hindenburgs perception acheived very little in life. Simply did not like Hitler.
----> Quote [Hindenburg] : "That man is not even fit to lick the stamps with my face on them."
--->Hindenburg didn't like the violence on the streets or Hitlers opposition to the democratic system. (Attempt to overthrow Weimar Rep. @ Putsch)
->Von Papen conspired with Hitler to try and get him in power as he believed he would be able to manipulate Hitler to take advantage of Hitlers power on the streets.
•In 1932 when NAZI party was largest single party Hindenburg did not ask them to form government.
->Major barrier to NAZI rise to power was Hindenburgs refusal to make Hitler Chancellor.
•1933 - Hindenburg began to accept that he may have to appoint Hitler as he was the only person who would be able to have enough support. Probably convinced by Von Papen
->30th Jan 1933 - Hindenburg asked Hitler to become chancellor of Germany.
-->People presumed Hitler would be out in March elections. No-one thought that Hitler's chancelorship would be permenant.
We can say Hitler became chancellor on 30th Jan 1933 but the majority of the members of the cabinet were not NAZI's therefore we cannot say that NAZI's came to powere in Jan 1933, although they increased their power over the 1933 years.
•Hindenburg died 1934
->Hitler merged office of chancellor & president (constitutional).
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•40% of Working class in Germany voted for the NAZI party in 1932.
->Working class are largest social grouping in the country. Without their support the NAZI party would not have come to power.
•60% of SA in 1920's were working class.
->Leadership of SA largely middle class.
•35% of NAZI party members were working class. 50% were middle class.
•NAZI's got a lot of support from rural areas. Particularly skilled workers in rural areas.
Support in particular from:
->Postmen
->Achedemics
->Teachers (had seen wages cut under Weimar Republic)
->Police & Judiciary.
•NAZI's didn't get great deal of support from heavy industry manual labourer (who are more likely to vote left-wing).
•Gender was not an issue in voting profiles.
•Protestants were more likly to vote NAZI than Catholics (Catholics has ZP to vote for).
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•NAZI party seen as catch all party of protest
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•••[Funding]•••
•NAZI party funding mainly from membership fee's and collections at meetings.
•Some contributions from wealthy individuals.
•Incomes from sales of the party newspaper.
•NAZI party not financed into power by big business.
->Until 1933 business does not contribute heavily to the NAZI party.
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(Notes from Richard Overy's 'Hitler & The Third Reich')
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1. Why did the NAZI party rise?
2. Who opposed the rise of the NAZI party?
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•Hitler only saw success within the socio-polical-economic context of the day. His influence can not be understood divorced from the economic, social and cultural situation of Germany in the 1920's.
->NAZI party rise is not solely due to the 'messianic apeal' and force of Hitlers personality. (Overy thinks that excessive emphasis is often place on this)
•Election posters slogan in 1932 - "Hitler, our last hope".
->Social/economic situation so bad that a 'last hope' is needed to sort it out.
•Pre WWI German economy had seen 40 years growth (3-4%). Middle classes gained greater standard of living. High expectations existed. When economy was stagnant in 1920's peoples expectations were not met and therefore they were discontented.
->Particularly true for the middle classes.
->Sense of relative deprevation existed.
•Social tension existed between unionised and non union-ised workers, Town & Country etc.
•Lack of an effective democratic system.
•Corporatist politics emerged. Big bussiness able to influence political system so as to take large share of what economic revival took place.
->While in work the labouring classes were getting a raising standard of living. (Middle class standard of living falling)
•The feeling that Parliamentary democracy democracty had failed Germany was a major factor.
•Economic slump hit Germany in 1928-29. Massive unemployement.
->By 1932 - 1 in 3 Germans unemployed.
->Industrial production back to 1890's levels.
->Slump acceletated loss of confidence in parliamentary democracy.
->Slump introduced fear of communism.
•NAZIsm appealed to (according to 1989 article (out of date))
->Small townsmen
->Anxious Officials
->Small businessmen
->Peasants who felt they had had a raw deal from the republic.
->Teachers & State employees.
-->½of votes can from countryside
->Rural workers
•NAZI slogan 'Freedom & Bread'.
->Hunger in Germany made this promise an influence over NAZI party successs.
•Hitler had ability to mobilise and encourage disaffected alienated peasents.
->High visibility, constant propoganda & good organisation helped.
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•••[Opposition to NAZI party rise.]•••
•Social democrats (SPD), Liberals and Catholic Centre Party (ZP) all broadly in favour of democracy therefore likely to be oppositions of NAZI party.
•KPD(communist) opposed NAZIs. Had around 3million supporters. Evenly spread at levels of arond 15% of vote in industrial areas.
->Left-wing opposition
•Not valid to say that anyone who didn't vote NAZI party is an opposition to the NAZIs. E.g. Bavarians may have voted for the NAZIs if they had not had their local Bavarian People Party.
->Social policies of NAZI very close to those of ZP. E.g. on role of women, abortion etc...
•DNVP policies post 1928 were very close to those of the NAZIs
•Any of the minority groups that NAZIs persecuted.
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The question is asked as to whether Descartes could create the idea of physical things without 'a posteori' knowledge.
Essence
Object Essence Modes
Substance I Thoughts (to be a thinking thing) Perceieves, eats, walks, moves
Stone Extension (all physical objects have extension as their essence) Hard, Grey
Infinite Substance God To exist in perfection -
Descartes answers that we can have knowledge of physical things as we are substances and therfore contain an understanding of substance inate within us. Descartes suggest that as we possess all the characteristics of substances eminently, we could, for example, have a-priori knowledge of a stone, or some other physical thing.
The idea of God
Descarte asks himself then; Does the idea of God "...contain something which could not have originated from me?"
He examines whether the inate idea of a perfect existing God that is inside his mind could have been created by himself, or whether it is the result of an external cause.
Examination of argument:
No, as infinite has a greater reality than finite, therfore perception of infinite exists prior to perception of finite.
He accepts that he cannot fully understand it, but does argue that he can clearly see that there is 'more reality' in the infinite than in the finite.
Descarte argues no, as he percieves he would always be able to add more to himself which would be incompattible with his idea of perfection to which nothing can be added. The idea of an intentional being cannot be caused by a formal or actual being.
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•Always leave a few lines between each part of your answer.
•Check timings according to marks available.
•Make all information relevant to answer, do not just describe sources.
•You must quote briefly from the sources.
->Don't mention line numbers etc. Use inline quotes.
Memoirs etc. Make events appear colourful but objectivity may be lost.
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Who started the fire?
>van der Lubbe
•Found at scene of the crime
•Physically able to have started the fire
•Circumstantial evidence
•His own confession
•No relialiable sources for any of the other arguments.
•Lowest common denominator between all acounts in VDL's presence
•Motive: lack of communist action post Hitlers appointment.
•Able to describe in detail small fires that were lit.
•Evidence he bought fire lighters.
•If it was a NAZI plot they would have more evidence of conspiracy planted.
Communists
•van Der Lubbe was a comunist.
•Was covering for friends. (other liqhts seen @ windows)
•Goering quoted sightings of VDL w/ other communists.
•Pamphlets.
•Communist activity in the area @ the time.
•>>NAZIs<<•
•Ernst confession (forgery)
•Tunnel - access was possible.
•Motive - to use for propoganda.
•Overheard confessions.
->Goering denied starting fire both at the time & at War Crimes Trial.
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Hitlers use of the Reichstag Fire.
•To intimidate right-wing politicians - assertion of control.
->Right-wing politicians believed Hitler & NAZI party responsible for fire.
-->Afraid for their own safety.
[eq. Conservative Nationalists.
->von Papen & Hurenburq
-->Not NAZIs
--->Not prepared to stand up to Hitler post-fire.]
•To eliminate communist influence.
Conservative Nationalists.
->von Papen & Hurenburq
-->Not NAZIs
--->Not prepared to stand up to Hitler post-fire.
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•Support for Communists in march 1933 fell
->Communists not alowed to campaign
->Communist leaders had been arrested so could not stand.
->People believed Communists had started fire and sense of revulsion existed - lowering Communists support.
•NAZI party still only got 44% in March 1933 elections.
->43.9% voted NAZI party in 1933.
-->88% turnout at elections.
•NAZI party got power in a major part due to electoral succeess.
•Post March elections NAZI party in coalitions, w/out overall majority & other parties in cabinet.
->NAZI party wanted to remove power of reichstag.
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•Post March elections NAZI party in coalitions, w/out overall majority & w/ other parties in cabinet.
•NAZI party did not believe in parliamentary democracy & wanted power to pass laws w/out the Reichstag.
->Hitler wanted to use democracy to destroy democracy.
•NAZI party wanted 'Enabling Act'
->Would give cabinet power to create decrees & laws without needing to consult Reichstag.
•To change constitution needed 2/3 majority in Reichstag.
->With quorum 2/3 of members present.
•NAZI party adapted rules to mean anyone not pressent at vote was not counted in quorum.
-->At vote on enabling act Communists not present. (arrested)
-->SPD were the most left-wing party vote.
--->Parties present were intimidated by SA presence.
--->Most of centre party (ZP) save from a few (E.g. Bruning) voted with Enabling Act
---->Catholics scared of confiscation of Church proptery,arrests of Catholic priests, shutting down of Catholic Schools. Thought that if they voted with NAZI party they would be spared this.
->Enabling Act voted in by 444 votes to 94.
-->Only SPD voted against Enabling Act
•Between 1933 (after the enabling act) and 1945 :
-> Reichstag passed only 7 laws.
->Powers of president diminished so that he no longer had to sign any documents.
•Enabling Act gave NAZI party real power - no longer can opposition have any power against them.
->Hitler still had to get agreement from cabinet to pass laws.
-->However - Cabinet became solely ruled by Hitlers personality,
--->No one dared disagree with Hitler
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•Nazi economics.
•Social impact of Nasizm on social classes.
->The role & status of women.
•Racism, citizenship & the treatment of minorities.
•Nazism & Nazi beliefs.
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Tested on one compulsory source based question in one hour.
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•Social Darwinism
->Hitler picked up social Darwinism indirectly.
•Aryan believed to be master race.
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•Politics is more important than economics.
->Nazi economics driven by political ideologies not economic sense.
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•Strands within Nazism reflected in economics.
->Socialist economic policies & nationalist economic policies.
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•Strasser's strand.
->Advocate of socialist strand. People should be able to earn an honest living.
->Opposed capitalism (seen as negativly competetive)
->Bread & work should be guarateed to all workers.
->Deficit spendinq is economically justifiable
in work creation.
->Emphasis on working class.
•>This strand of Nazism dies out in 1934 @ Niqht of the Lonq Knives.
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•Main strands...
•Autarky - economic self sufficiency.
->Not importinq goods.
-->Eg. 1933 - 20pc of foodstuffs imported. 1938-39 - 17pc of foodstuffs still imported.
--->Policy failed.
->Reliance on other nations for imports is weakness durinq war.
->Nazi view: dedendence on others shows weakness. Racial element. Ayrans should not rely on other races.
•>Not all supported autarky.
->Schacht (not a nazi but was minister of economics) disaqreed with autarky on economic grounds.
•Defecit financing of public works.
->1932 unemployment peaked at 6 million.
-->Nazis used public works to get people back to work.
->Gov. pays out money it does not have (borowing etc)
•Defence Economy (Wehrwirtschaft)
->Building up economy to meet the needs of a future war.
-->Switch from consumer goods to war goods.
•>Questions exist over what sort of war Germany wanted.
->Total war -When the whole economy, army & people are geared up for war.
->Blitzkrieg - liqhtninq war fare. Involves only a few people.
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•Problems faced in a move to a war economy.
->Livinq standards cannot be lowered.
->Private firms do not like to be dictated to by government.
->Germany still did not have Autarky.
]-->Hitler was woried 1933 - 1936 about losing support & facing a popular rebelion.
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•Hitlers aproach was not for the state to 'bail out' failinq business but to let them go bust.
->Application of social darwinism - the weak companies fail, the strong survive - this is good for the economy.
-->Link between Nazi theory & economic policy.
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•Socialism element.
->Emphasis on needs of working class.
•Nationalism element.
->Emphasis on nation & race
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•••[Context]•••
•Economic mess in Germany when NAZIs came to power.
World economy was in poor state.
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•March 1932 - Schacht appointed President of Reichsbank.
->Schacht had solved 1923 hyperinflation crisis.
->Great deal of control over Nazi economic policy.
•Reichsbank issued Mefo Bills.
->Effectivly IOUs - but they did not go through the books meaning other nations did not find out about 1933 - 1936 re-armament 50% of which was paid for by Mefo Bills.
-->Alowed for secret re-armament.
•1933 - 36 imports to build up armed forces left Germany with a balance of payment defecit.
•1934-37 Schacht was minister of economics as well as being president of Reichsbank.
->July 1934 - law passed that gave Minister of Economics dictatorial power.
-->1934-36 - Schacht had total control of economy.
•Set up control over imports.
->Gave Nazis great deal of control over business.
•Used system of barter to avoid re-armament going through the books.
•Guns vs. Butter debate.
->Hitler not willing to cut consumer production greatly for fear of rebellion.
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•••[Four Year Plan]•••
•Four Year plan 1936 - 40
->Different from 'The New Plan'.
->Most important document from Nazi's.
-->A politically motivated plan.
->Run by 4 Year Plan office - run by Goering.
•Main aims of plan.
''I thus set out the following tasks;
I. The German armed forces must be operational within four years.
II. The German economy must be fit for war within four years.'' (quote from 4 year plan by AH)
->Does not say what type of warfare.
-->Partialy revealed in economics. Seems to be aiminq at limited & not total war.
••PLAN CONTENTS.
•Anti-semitism & anti-communisn
->Communism linked with Jews & both painted as enemy.
-->'Destiny of Germany to overthrow Bolshevism'
•Stress on Agriculture.
->AH woried Agriculture output could not be increased.
•Not detailed economic plan.
->Set out targets but not how the achieve them.
••SUCCESS & FAILURE OF THE PLAN
•Inacuracy in figures as producers in a command economy are prone to mis-report their output (see misc notes).
•Targets not met.
->E.g by 1942
-->Over 50% shortfall on Mineral Oil targets.
-->Over 25% shortfall on Synthetic Rubber targets.
-->Coal targets almost met.
-->Shortfall of 1/6 on steel production.
•Reasons for shortfall
->They didn't build factories quick enough.
->Still producing high quantity of consumer goods (trying for Guns & Butter)
->Economy still not fully mobilised for war.
(•Extra notes
->Remember that four year plan ends in 1940.)
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Failures of Nazi economic policy...
•17% of food stuffs were still being imported in 1938 - 39.
->Autarky failed
•Germany did not have sufficient raw materials internally.
->Hampered re-armament.
-->1936 munitions factories could not properly opperate.
•Schacht did not think policy of autarky made economic sense.
->Schacht was Minister of economics.
•Autarky was politically, not economically, motivated.
->Hitler etc.
->Possible racial motive.
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•Not interventionist.
->Did not suqqest or create many policies himself.
•Plans stated a required result but not how to arive at that result.
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•What type of war.
->Type of economy needed depends on type of war expected.
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•Problems with NAZI figures.
->Do not assume a constant rate of qrowth when lookinq at fiqures.
-->Eg. With fiqures for 1938 and 1942,do not extrapolate 1940 figures.
->Company officials do not report acurate figures (e.g. if given a target of 5000 units and only 2500 are produced - company will report 5000 units produced)
->People told the NAZIs what the NAZIs wanted to hear.
->NAZI unemployment figures excluded many social groupings included elsewhere. (e.g. Unmarried women not counted)
->Quantative information about opposition to NAZIs is simply not available.
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Event/People
•Albert Speer - 1942 - 45 minister for Armaments.
->Wrote memoirs post War.
•August 1939 - Hitler did not expect UK & France to intervene when he invaded Poland.
•Not till August 1940 did Hitler start planning invasion of the Soviet Union.
•Brown house = NAZI party hq in each city.
•Every 30th January (anniversary of Hitler becoming chancellor) was always the day of major propoganda speach.
->Speaches on the 30th Jan & 20th April (Hitlers Birthday) should be recognised as centrally propoganda and not neccessarily things that are to be implemented into policy.
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•Rural and Urban working classes.
•Rural
->Made up around 25% of total population.
->Post agricultural crisis most rural working class supported NAZIs
-->Apeal of NAZI promise of 'Freedom & Bread'
•Urban
->Majority of urban working classes initially supported Left-Wing parties.
-->Not particularly sympathetic to NAZIs
->However anything up to 1/3 of urban working classes did support the NAZIs
-->Apeal was offer of employment & nationalistic.
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•Left-wing working class largely believed in internationalism wheras NAZIs believed in nationalism.
•Working class believed in conflict with upper classes.
->NAZIs prefered cooperation.
•NAZIs needed working class support to achieve economic aims.
->NSBO (National Socialist Factory Cell Organisation) attempted to gain support for NAZIs from working class.
-->Encouraged works councils in which workers were involved.
--->25% of votes in workers councils for NAZIs. Considerable success.
->1st May 1933 - Labour day celebrations of the workers.
-->2nd May 1933 - NAZIs closed down the trade unions.
--->Work of Robert Ley.
[Not all unions closed on 2nd May but majority & most important were]
---->Closed on grounds of anti-communism. Communism goes against national unity
---->Many middle class people did not mind loss of unions. Trade unions had gained many benefits for workers so met dislike & envy from middle class. Middle class had in many cases had their wages cut.
[---->Note: Benefits for working classes had only come to those who were in work - unemployed did not see any benefits. Unions also only successful in Urban areas - not practicle in countryside (e.g. Farmer cannot easily strike etc.)]
•NSBO tried on small scale to intimidate employers into sacking non-Nazis and giving their jobs to unemployed Nazis.
•DAF (German Workers Front) set up by Ley.
->Alterative to trade unions.
-->NAZI way of controllinq the workers.
See seperate notes on KdF.
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•German Workers Front = DAF
•Set up by Ley on order of Hitler.
->Hitler did not have any ideas on the details of what the DAF should do.
->Ley admitted that he had no idea about the Trade Unions.
>>DAF set up:
•Beauty Through Labour
->Set up in Nov 1933.
->Purpose: to improve the working conditions within factories
-->Good lighting - good work.
-->Fight against noise.
--->67000 inspections, 26000 improvments to work rooms, 18000 canteens created by 1939
---->Note : Nazi figures - no points of comparison. No start date for when imrovments started.
--->There was genuine attempt to improve conditions of some workers.
---->Better lighting, better ventilation, introduction of hot meals etc.
--->However, some minus points - eg. workers forced to dig their own swimming pools as leisure facilities.
•Strength Through Joy movement (KdF - Kraft durch Freude)
->Leisure time organisation.
->Organisation of Leisure activities.
-->Ran concerts, operetas, theatre, films, exhibitions, evening variety shows.
-->By 1938 - millions participating in strength through joy.
[-->Film and theatre used for propoganda, but not heavy handed at all. Very subtle.]
-->Much social life arranged through Strenght Through Joy, therefore great impact upon peoples lives.
-->Organised many sports activies.
--->Gymnastics, Water Sports, Factory Sports etc.
-->Millions of vacations and short breaks organised by KdF
•Strenth Through Joy was a really important part of German life.
->Mainly aimed @ urban working class.
-->Shows NAZI party in a good light.
-->KdF breaks down class barrier. Provides to the working class what had previously only been available to middle & upper class. (eg. Leisure time & holidays).
--->Idealogical drive. No class divides = no basis for communism.
--->Trying to build community - give sense of shared community experiences. However - it is a national socialist community - so anyone who is an outsider to the NAZI ideals (ie. Aryan) were excluded.
->KdF - Increasing support & reducing opposition to the NAZI party.
•KdF Car - 1939
->Selling a dream.
->Promise of a car for people after they have input money into the saving schemes.
-->Importance of car not to be underestimated.
->Very few people actually got their cars - as scheme was suspended when war broke out.
-->W/ people holdinq savings they were not willinq to 'rock the boat' vs. the NAZI.
•Beauty Through Labour did not have same idealogical drive as KbF.
•Criticisms of KdF
->Expensive on some trips.
->All agree KdF had an impact but SPD contacts claimed much of it was for show.
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NAZI control of the economy.
•Appointed 12 Trustees of Labour who set wages.
->Company bosses lost control of wages.
->With NAZI control of wages they could remove wage inflation.
-->1933 - 36 : no wage inflation.
--->Workers disatisfied.
--->Skilled labour shortage meant some pay not goinq through books. (brown envelope)
•Five new days of paid holiday given.
->Response to objection at no pay rises.
•By 1939 wages (in real terms) had only just gone back to just above 1929 levels (doc 256)
•1935 - NAZIs introducted Compulsory Reich Labour Service
->6 Months compulsory manual labour service.
-->Digging canals etc.
-->Minimal pay (accomodation provided etc.)
->Service was used to indoctrinate Young People.
-->Everyone had to take part. (Initially just Men, Women took part in different tasks at a later stage)
•>Used to break down bariers.
->Emphasis totally on National Socialism.
•>Many did not like conditions.
-->Some people disaffected.
->Affected only YP post 1935 - so only small amount affected.
-->NAZIs did listen to some complaints and make changes.
->Theory was good but practise was not. Reich Labour Service largely not good for NAZI party.
•Work Creation Programme - 1933.
->Number of measures.
-->All work must be manual labour.
-->Autoban project.
•Work books.
->Limit on movement of labour.
->Logging of jobs (any reasons for dismissal etc.)
-->Control Mechanism.
•Strikes responded to harshly.
->Workers feared consequences of striking.
•Mass conscription for labour programmes.
->Highly disliked.
•Hours went up.
->People disliked the lonq hours. ('58 to 65 hour weeks no Longer exceptional')
•Unemployment problem sorted in effect by 1937.
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->See notes in file.
-->Robert Gellately - 'Gypsys' & Sexual Outsiders.
•••[Euthanasia]•••
•Euthanasia policy 39-40 for 'useless feeders'
->Severely physical handicapped.
->Mentally ill/disabled.
->Elderly.
•>Not real Euthanasia but straightforward murder under guide of 'well killing'
•C18th onwards - Question of what to do with the 'Living Burdens'.
->Greater problem since WWI
->NAZIs also thought 'incurable lunatics' to be part of the problem.
-->Many writing at start of C20th suggested it was the sollution to 'Put these people out of their misery'.
--->Not solely a NAZI attitude.
•Hitler attitude made in 1939 speach.
->Social Darwinism - if the weakest are removed then we shall get an increase in strength. 'We should not cut off the process of natural selection...' . Such social protection of the weak is allowing them to bring down the race.
-->Genetic health. Those who are not genetically health should not be allowed to have Children.
--->1933 - NAZIs passed a law called 'The Law for the Prevention of Heritarily Diseased Offspring'
---->NAZIs introduced compulsory sterilisation for people with genetic disorders.
---->Midwives pursaded in 1939 to report deformed babies / babies with genetic abnomalitys.
•>1939 - Adult Euthanasia Program
->Most of those killed were already in mental institutions or hospitals.
-->October 1939 - Hitler issued an order saying that 'Euthanasia is acceptable'. However, it said that Mercy Death may be granted one in exceptional circumstances by doctors specially given this power and responsibility.
--->Forms required.
--->Mixed race persons far more likely to be given Euthanasia than Aryans
>Improving the racial stock of the Aryans.
•1939 - 1941 - Childrens Euthanasia Unit created and over 5,200 babies killed in this timeperiod.
->Not always humane deaths.
->Older children taken in by Adult Euthanasia Unit.
•Opposition to Euthanasia Policy
->Main opposition from Bishop von Galen
-->Group of Uni students known as 'White Rose' distributed sermon of Galen.
->Church as an organisation did not steak up but individuals did.
•August 1941 Euthanasia program ended because of popular opposition from his own people.
->Nothing happened to those who opposed just the Euthanasia issue.
->No new children brought into program, but older people to send to concentrations camps.
->1940 - 41 : 100,000 mentally ill killed. 200,000 overall.
-->Killings continued but secretly in Concentration Camps.
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•Inbalance in population.
->Shortage of men.
-->1.7m had died in WWI
->Birth rate was declining.
-->NAZIs banned contraception. (also served to gain Church support)
-->Abortion laws upheld and enfored.
-->Having children out of wedlock seen in case of mental instability - some locked away. (not uncommon view across Europe)
->NAZIs wanted to promote higher birth rate among Aryan race.
-->More workers, more soldiers, more wealth.
-->Worry about being 'outbred' by slavs & non-aryans.
•Role of women.
->NAZI view
-->@ home looking after man & children. (Again church agrees)
->Rights of women
-->Under Weimar had got greater freedom. (political, career, social etc)
--->Not under NAZIs.
---->Attitude towards women reverts to C19th view. It was Weimar which had been anomoly.
->Emancipation of women.
-->Equality of men & women - does not exist under NAZIs.
•Hitlers speach on women
->'Emancipation of women' slogan accused of being of Jewish origin.
->What women should do is God given. Sex roles are natural - not to be contested or gone against.
->Women should not interfere in sphere of men & vice-versa.
-->Male & Female should stay w/ different roles. Woman's role is bringing life into world & protecting individual lives - Mans is to protect on the battle field.
->Hitler saw men & women as compliments - not women as the weaker sex.
-->Social Darwinistic idea.
•>Hitlers ideas. Not neccessarily consistant w/ all Nazi leaders.
•Work.
->Married women should not work.
-->However Nazis did not manage to get women out of the workforce. Labour force shortages meant more women brought in in some cases.
->Unmarried women / those who've already had children etc. could work.
•Logical inconsistancies.
->Cannot have all men out fighting & women @ home. Who runs factories etc? Self undermining.
-->Irony of Nazism.
- - - - - - - - - -
•No opposition from women to Nazi policy on women.
- - - - - - - - - -
Aims.
->& success/failures
•To get women out of the workforce
->Slight reduction 33-36 then increases. Failed
•Increase the birth rate.
->Rise but only sliqhtly. Mostly due to improving economic conditions.
•Marriage loans schemes.
->700,000 couples took advantage of them. But no radical increase in the Birth rate.
•Mothers Cross
•Getting women to support the NAZIs.
->Hiqh attendance to NAZI run orqanisations for women.
->Votinq fiqures show women votinq similarly to men.
•Retreated from public world into private world of family. (due to hostility of public world to women - less political agravation in family life.)
---
•Compulsory Sterilisation
->Partially Successful.
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•Nazis place qreat emphasis on C&YP.
->If reich is to last 1000 years then youth is v. important.
•Hitler speach
->'We want not those who can hold their drink but those who are slim & slender, swift,...tough...& hard'
-->All policy aimed towards making young people strong to be army of the future etc.
--->Indoctrination to abolish class conciousness & replace w/ identity as German. Defined not by class but by race (Attack on Communism - no class conciousness undermines communism).
•Education of children.
->Childrens books full of anti-semitic propoganda.
->Maths questions filled with propoganda.
-->Minister for education (Bernhard Rust) not very effective as it took till around 1939-40 before new text books introduced into schools (missed a lot of students). But content of lessons had changed earlier.
--->Eg. Biology had become 'racial biology'. (teaching on racial purity etc.)
->Pro-nazi propoganda across the board in schooling.
•Germany had always had a large number of youth organisation.
->Jan 1933 - 5-6 million (out of 7m 10-18's) members of youth groups.
-->Only 100,000 members of HJ.
--->In July 33 all youth organisations (except catholic run) taken over by and controlled by the Nazis.
•Hitler Youth (HJ)
->Not until 1939 that membership of HJ was compulsory
->14-18 year olds.
->People joined for a whole variety of reasons.
-->Job prospects, sports, holidays, feeling of belonging etc.
->Success dependant on quality of leadership.
->Hitler youth movement ended up set against education system in cases.
•Leaque of German Maidens (BDM)
->For qirls 14-18.
->Very competition oriented. Each girls work must be best.
-->'struggle' to achieve better.
->Gave a lot of opportunities to girls. More freedom. Lot of chances to get involved in sports etc. with friends.
->Also included political meetinqs filled with Nazi propoganda.
-->Everything propoganda focussed.
•••[Education]•••
•Nazis tried to control the teachers.
->Under Weimar teachers wages had gone down.
->Under Nazis there was emphasis on children & thus by inference teachers were important.
->Nazis wanted moulding of C&YP not education & evolution of thinking capacity.
•Universities carried on in nazi German.
->Nazi's set out 'Laws for German Students'. (doc. 321)
->Post 1933 - Purge of Lecturers.
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•••[Why was there so much anti-semitism]•••
•Reasons for peoples anti-semitism.
->Jews able to lend money for interest.
->Usuary. Chrisitians could not lend money for interest therefore Jews had control of financial industries.
-->Many wealthy Jews, causes social tensions.
->Killers of Christ.
->Different cultures & reliqion.
->Jews spoke different language. Yiddish.
->Jews always outsider groups. Had their own communities.
]->All caused social tensions & hatred towards Jews.
•Roots of German anti-semitism
->In Germany there was a belief that Jews had made a lot of money from the first world war. War profiteers.
->German Jews were relivivly wealthy. Largely urban population (e.g. 150,000 Jews in Berlin post WWI)
->Dominated certain professions. E.g. Doctors, Laywers, Lecturers. Theatre jobs etc. They were largely working middle class.
•Hitlers Anti-Semitism
->Grew up in an anti-semitic culture.
(->Hitlers mother died. Doctor was Jewish, therefore some think that Hitler may have blamed mothers death on doctor and thus Jews. Most probably not the case.)
->There does not in fact appear to be a single event in his life to have made Hitler as anti-semitic as he was.
->Hitler himself says that it was his time in Vienna before WWI that made his anti