•••[Why was there so much anti-semitism]•••
•Reasons for peoples anti-semitism.
->Jews able to lend money for interest.
->Usuary. Chrisitians could not lend money for interest therefore Jews had control of financial industries.
-->Many wealthy Jews, causes social tensions.
->Killers of Christ.
->Different cultures & reliqion.
->Jews spoke different language. Yiddish.
->Jews always outsider groups. Had their own communities.
]->All caused social tensions & hatred towards Jews.
•Roots of German anti-semitism
->In Germany there was a belief that Jews had made a lot of money from the first world war. War profiteers.
->German Jews were relivivly wealthy. Largely urban population (e.g. 150,000 Jews in Berlin post WWI)
->Dominated certain professions. E.g. Doctors, Laywers, Lecturers. Theatre jobs etc. They were largely working middle class.
•Hitlers Anti-Semitism
->Grew up in an anti-semitic culture.
(->Hitlers mother died. Doctor was Jewish, therefore some think that Hitler may have blamed mothers death on doctor and thus Jews. Most probably not the case.)
->There does not in fact appear to be a single event in his life to have made Hitler as anti-semitic as he was.
->Hitler himself says that it was his time in Vienna before WWI that made his anti-semitic.
-->Vienna had largest Jewish population in Europe at the time.
-->Hitler saw all filths and problems in culture as at least assotiated with Jews. In Mein Kamph Jews attributed as source of all things which are bad and wrong.
--->Problems with theory that Hitlers anti-semitism is from Vienna.
---->No expression of anti-semitism pre-WWI.
->Hitler always links Jews with communists.
-->Theory : Hitlers extreme anti-semitism came when he linked Jews with communists. Nov. 1919 Hitler would have seen clear link between revolutionary commnists (Kurt Eisner) and Jews (Marx, Trotsky - Jews). Protocols of the elders of Zion etc.
•>Identified differences between Jewish and Hitlers ideologies.
->Hitler judged worth on basis of nationalism. Jews didn't even have a nation - they believed more in internationalism.
>Hitler believed in Fuhrer principle. Single leader theory. Jews believed in Democracy. (according to Hitler - note conflict with claims that Jews supported communism)
->Hitler believed strongly in millitarism. Most of the Jews (according to Hitler) were pacafists.
]->Everything the Jew stands for Hilter despises.
Jews were being used as Scape Goats.
->Were blamed for everything and not in the position to defend themselves due to background anti-semitism.
•Where do we find Hitlers anti-semitism.
->25 points of Nazi party for the 1920's.
->Mein Kamph. Written 1924.
->Series of speaches in which Hitler demonstrated his anti-semitism.
•Extra notes
->Jews were concetrated in some big towns. Large areas where there were no Jews. Overall jews were less than 0.5% of population.
-->Very few German Jews overall, but they were used as scape goats.
30 June 1934
•Destruction of the SA as a political force.
->Do not cease to exist but lose their political power.
•SA led by Ernst Röhm
->Was fear that Röhm wanted to take over the army.
->Great deal of political disorder and tension in 33/34
->Many believed Röhm wanted a second revolution.
-->Would have given greater power to the SA and working class.
--->Hitler did not want this - 'evolution not revolution' Revolution would have removed Hitler.
--->Röhm thought SA had got a raw deal - they had been the ones doing the fighting etc, but had no credit.
--->There was a fear of the SA by the German populus who felt the SA had made streets unsafe.
->1934 saw tensions between SA and army growing rapidly. Army suspicious (correctly) of SA ambitions for taking over army. (Army had 100,000, SA had over 3 Million).
->Himmler (head of the SS) also wanted to get rid of Röhm.
-->SS was part of SA hierachy (below SA leadership). To get more power Himmler needed to get rid of Röhm.
->Hitler didn't fully trust the SA (partly as majority of them were working class - thus might have internationalist tendancies as opposed to nationalism. SA members tended to work on class concepts instead of nationalist concepts)
->Some SA leaders were homosexuals.
•Driving force behind Night of the Long Knives.
->Apparantly Hitler.
-->But Himler & SS had been playing SA & Army off against each other with rumours etc.
--->Influenced Hitlers decisions on purge of SA.
•Lessons of the Night of the Long Knives
->Shows the ruthlessness of Hitler. (one of the reasons behind the lack of opposition to Hitler)
->Removed opposition to Hitler from within the Nazi movement.
->Removed opposition from the Conservative Nationalists (including Von Papen etc) as a number of Conservative Nationalists had been killed (e.g von schliecher)
->Allowed the expansion of Himler and his empire.
->Binds the army to Hitlers cause.
-->Seen in oath of allegience to army in Aug 1934. 'Hitler had saved army'
->Many in Germany happy to see the SA (percieved as excessive element of Nazism) removed.
•Results of Night of the Long Knives
->Hitler claimed 77 people had died.
-->Could have been up to 1000
->Public thought Hitler now 'had a grip' and political violence & excesses would now stop.
->SS & Himler gain.
-->Himler didn't mind violence by the SA, but didn't like their lack of order and was strongly morraly opposed to homosexuality in the SA.
-->SS & SA become seperate organisation. (SS formerly within SA)
--->SS becomes politically powerful wheras SA becomes politicaly irrelevant (lower membership, just providing manpower for transport, rallies etc.)
-->From 33 -June 34 Rohm had significant power in Germany. From July 34, without Rohm, Himlers power greatly grew.
->Goering & Goebbels benefit because of removal of rival Rohm.
->Gregor Strasser killed. More definative ending of the socialist strand of Nazism. Hitlers strand of Nazism only one left with no competitors. Thus Hiters Nazism is Nazism.
->Army no longer feeling under threat.
-->Army has worked toqether with Hitler on Night of the Long Knives, and thus bound together with Hitler.
--->Army even killed millitary men to help Hitler. General von Schleicher & von Kahr.
->Army give Oath of Loyalty to Hitler in August
->Conservative Nationalist opposition frightened. Grouping fell apart.
]-->No organisations left who could oppose Hitler.
->Power shift after Night of the Long Knives
•Sources
->25 Points of the NAZI programme of the 1920s.
->Mein Kamph.
->Hitlers Speaches.
->Propoganda
-->Tells what the NAZIs wanted people to believe about the NAZIs.
->Memoirs etc.
-->e.g. Shacht
->Actions of the NAZIs
-->Laws, policies and actions.
•Elements of Nazism
->Social Darwinism
-->Struggle
--->Concept of struggle seen in NAZI party in rivalry between ministers (Schacht v Darre), between organisations (SA v SS), Mein Kamph - My Struggle.
--->Question of whether Hitler set up struggles between his departments in unknown.
-->Action
--->Nazi did not believe in theorising. Prefered action to talk. Great emphasis of taking action - training Ayrans to build a master race.
-->Fuhrerprinzip
--->Obedience to the leaders at all levels of the Heirachy.
--->Believed that all German people should be under the same, single leader.
]->Tension between notion of struggle and Fuhrerprinzip. Unquestioning following of leadership is not fully compatible with struggle. What about struggle for leadership.
]->Some have argued that struggle is key part of Nazism manifested in supreme struggle of warfare etc.
->Social Darwinism also manifest in policies on gypsies, homosexuals, euthanasia etc. Compulsory sterilisation.
--->Also 1935 Nuremburg Laws - forbidding inter-racial marriage with Jews.
--->Also marriage loans promoting racially pure breeding.
->Volksgemeinschaft - Folk Community
-->Nazis wanted to build a different society but disagreed about what they wanted. Different levels of importance to different Nazis.
--->Himler had romantic view of noble Aryan and ordered state. Goering far more concerned w/ social control.
-->Tension between co-operation Volksgemeinschaft idea & struggle.
->Serving National Socialist State
-->Legitimises action against those who are not serving the National Socialist State.
--->E.g. Anti gypsie / semitic / homosexual campaigns etc.
->Economics as the servant of politics.
-->Hitler saw everything in political terms - economics simply a means to produce a political end.
-->Autarky
--->Self sufficiency to get political autonomy. Nazis Aryan race should not be dependant on anyone else.
-->Corporate State
--->Nazis wanted central control of the economy and all other aspects of the state.
--->Industry became centralised. Targets set. However - return figures made unreliable by use of terror.
---->Economic figures & indicators across Germany unreliable. Thus can leaders really be in control if the don't have reliable knowledge.
->Lebensraum
-->Living space for master race to survive and expand.
--->Focus on land from the east. Poland, western-russia etc.
---->Aryan as master race had the right to take this land.
-->Also to gain access to raw materials.
->Anti-semitism & Race
-->Nazism is a racial doctorine.
•Focus on race.
->Marks Nazism out from other sorts of Facism.
->Notion of Aryan supremacy.
-->Race was foundation of Nazism.
•Nothing new in nazism.
•40% of Working class in Germany voted for the NAZI party in 1932.
->Working class are largest social grouping in the country. Without their support the NAZI party would not have come to power.
•60% of SA in 1920's were working class.
->Leadership of SA largely middle class.
•35% of NAZI party members were working class. 50% were middle class.
•NAZI's got a lot of support from rural areas. Particularly skilled workers in rural areas.
Support in particular from:
->Postmen
->Achedemics
->Teachers (had seen wages cut under Weimar Republic)
->Police & Judiciary.
•NAZI's didn't get great deal of support from heavy industry manual labourer (who are more likely to vote left-wing).
•Gender was not an issue in voting profiles.
•Protestants were more likly to vote NAZI than Catholics (Catholics has ZP to vote for).
- - - - - - - - - -
•NAZI party seen as catch all party of protest
- - - - - - - - - -
•••[Funding]•••
•NAZI party funding mainly from membership fee's and collections at meetings.
•Some contributions from wealthy individuals.
•Incomes from sales of the party newspaper.
•NAZI party not financed into power by big business.
->Until 1933 business does not contribute heavily to the NAZI party.
•••[Relevant Y1 Notes]•••
•Started 1918
•Ended 1933
->Some argue actually August 1934 when Hindenburg died.
•Hindenburg
->Himself a legacy of the Weimar republic
-->Had been elected 192
•Acceptance the terms of the ToV
->Limits on Army etc.
-->100,000 men.
•Weimar Republic had system of PR voting.
->Thus Germany always had multi-party coalition governments.
•Weimar constitution
->V. Unpopular
-->Percieved to have failed economically & politically.
->Constitution agreed 1919
-->Stated President could select the Chancellor
--->Hindenburg selected Hitler as chancellor (Jan 30 1933)
•••[The Nazi Dictatorship]•••
>See '(Y1) Who supported the NAZI's?'
•Origins of Nazi support
>Traditional view
->Nazi support came from lower middle classes
>Historian Conan Fischer has shown 60% of SA were working class. Only slightly less than working class support for the communist street forces. Officers in SA mainly middle class
>35% of Nazi party members were working class. (not surprising that it is not more due to cost of membership).
>Therefore significant support for Nazi movement from working class.
•Voting behavior
>Key Historian : Falter
->Compared census socio-economic profiles of areas with voting records.
>Workers only voting sliqhtly less for Nazis than other parties. Only just statistically significant.
->Not middle class that brought Nazis to power, but working class support. Without working class support the Nazis would not have come to power.
>However - how do you define 'working class'. Is division by class just a Marxist legacy.
->For Nazi support, majority of working class support came from rural areas.
-->Eg. Many aqricultural workers etc. Note that 30% of the population still lived in rural areas.
>Protestants more likely to vote Nazi than Catholics as Catholics had ZP to vote for.
->ZP policy close to Nazi policy on many social & international issues.
>Men & Women equally likely to vote Nazi.
]•>Traditional view has therefore been totally overturned.
->Whilst lower-middle classes (shop keepers etc.) were important the roll of the working class was key to Nazis gaining power.
•Ideological motives for Nazi party membership. (From 1930's survey of party membership)
>In popularity order:
->Because its anti-communist
->German Nationalism
->Volksgermeinschaft
->Cult of the Leader
>Party membership was 850,000 in 1933 and growing.
->Nazi party wasn't looking for mass membership. Membership was fairly fluid.
->Female membership always less than 10%.
•>Historian : Childers - The Nazis were a 'catch-all party of protest'.
->Argued that many voting Nazi as protest against Weimar republic rather than being pro-nazi.
-->However, in reply to Childers it must be asserted that many supported Nazi policy. Eg. Don't pay reparations, abolish ToV, nationalism. Majority of Nazi voters, even making protest votes, will have shared Nazi aims.
•Note : the Nazi Party & the Nazi movement are not the same thing.
->Nazi movement includes:
-->Nazi party, SA, SS, HJ etc.
->Nazi party is just the political party.
•Nazi funding in 20's & 30's
->Traditional view that big-business sponsered the Nazis.
-->Henry Turners examination of records show this was wrong. Business supported Nazis only post-1932 when Nazis became largest political party. But they still funded other political parties as well. Support for Nazis from business increased in 1933 onwards.
•30 Jan - Hitler became chancellor.
•Hitler's Jan '33 government was a multi-party coalition with only 3 Nazis in cabinet.
•March'33 elections - Nazis are largest political party but still in coalition.
•March 22nd. - Enabling Act - allowed Nazis to take control.
->But still coalition cabinet.
->However it is now Hitler in charge.
•August 1934 - Hindenburg died.
->Hitler merged presidency & chancellorship.
•Policy towards Gypsies.
->20,000 out of total population of 65 milliow
-->Minority group.
->Will for something to be done about the gypsies from general public.
-->Low-level Nazi officials forced to take action by popular demand. Localised initiatives.
-->Seen as a law and order issue.
-->1938 Himler became interested in 'gypsie problem'
--->Action against gypsies became centralised under Kripo (KRIminal POlice)
--->Seen as a racial issue.
->Gypsies being persecuted (including being put into concentration camps) from 1933 onwards. Only under central control from 1938.
]->Policy initiative coming from below. Made elite notice it as a problem and thus develop central policy under racial context.
-->Central policy came from Himler. We don't know Hitlers views on the policy.
--->Himler emphasised how míxed race gypsies were those causing the problems.
•Homosexuality.
->Popular hostility towards homosexuality
->1939 - Central nazi action: closed homosexual bars & clubs. Banned gay rights organisation. Books with homosexual content burned in book burning.
-->Central action but not at odds with the views of the general public.
->Rohm (high profile homosexual Nazi) killed in Night of the Long Knives. No longer a barier to a clamp down on Homosexuals. Imprisonments for homosexuality rose sharply post NoLN.
-->Illustrates limitations on cenral governments ability to act due to circumstances.
•Women
->Over 1/2 population of Germany women.
->Decisions were determined centrally.
-->Abortion enforcably prohibited.
-->Birth control centres closed down.
-->Income tax allowances for dependant children doubled.
-->Marriage Loans Act
--->700,000 couples took advantage of loan 1933 - 37. A lot of women prepared to leave workforce and have loan.
-->Mothers honour cross.
->A number of Nazi womens organisations existed.
-->DFW (German Womens Enterprise) took over all womens groups (not just Nazi).
--->2.3 million members by 1938.
]->Many women took advantage of provisions by Nazis, however no way of measuring actual level of support for Nazi policy.
-->However, thosed who opposed main Nazi policy became outsiders.
•>Policy often implemented at a local level.
->Where problems originate.
->Eg. Block Warden report to influence mariage loan.
•Enabling Act
->(Historian : Noakes)Hitler as driving force behind enabling law.
-->Required 2/3 majority in Reichstag to be passed.
--->Idea to overcome this majority problem came from Wilhelm Frick (Reich Minister of the Interior). Changed rules to 2/3 majority of those present.
-->Hitler had to promise to respect The Catholic Church in return for ZP votes on the enabling act. Had to make a concession.
--->ZP both 'wooed by promises...also intimidated by the fear of what would happen...if they refused'
---->Both fear & concessions used at this time.
-->SA & SS presence @ vote. Intimidation & threats by Nazis. Hitler knows his threats will be carried out.
->All but SPD voted for enabling act.
-->End of parliamentary democracy in Germany.
-->Hindenburg supported principle of enabling act (anti-parliamentary-democracy) so did not use power to stop Hitler.
->Goebbels Diary - 22 April 1933 : Hitlers authority is now completly 'in the ascendant in the Cabinet', no more voting. 'the Fuhrer's personality decides. All this has been achieved much more quickly than we had dared to hope...'
(See Y1 notes)
•European christian attitudes towards Jews.
->'Hated & Despised Jews' in many cases.
-->Jews seen as killers of Christ.
-->Jews denied that Jesus was son of God.
--->Seen as Heresy in the past. 'Burn the Heretic'
-->Jewish customs different from those of the Christians. (eg. Different sabaths, kosher butchering, dress codes)
-->Only group religiously permitted to practise usury - lending money for Interest.
->Ghetto areas (name came from area of Venice) where Jews were restricted to in cities. First arived in Venice in C13.
-->Jews therefore became an 'unknown', thus creating fear of the unknown.
•Nazi anti-semitism.
->Bought into Christian anti-semitism.
•Hitlers anti-semitism
->Brought up as a Roman Catholic.
->Background anti-semitism shared with general population. But Hitlers anti-semitism had something more to it.
-->Mein Kamph claim that it was in Vienna that Hitler gained his anti-semitism.
--->Arguably true that resentment of Jews did develop here, but strengh of Hitlers pre-WWI was low level.
-->Arguments suggest that post-WWI Munich contributed to Hitlers strong anti-semitism.
--->Making links between Jews & Communists (Eisner, Marx, Trotsky/Lev Bronstein)
->(See Y1 notes)
••[The decision to exterminate the Jews]••
•The Intentionalist argument.
->States that from the beginning Hitler intended to exterminate the Jews.
-->Argues that 'The Final Solution' refers to killing the Jews
-->Hitlers refers to Jews in Mein Kampf as 'the typical parasite' (1924). Puts forward the view that the Jew deliberatly intends to infect Aryan blood bringing down the Aryan. (Doc 54)
-->Nuremburg Laws (Doc 55) 'Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour' banned (and annulled existing) marriages between Germans & Jews. Banned sexual relations outside of marriage between Jews and German nationals / those of kindred blood. (Thus making it impossible for a Jew and non-Jew to carry on living together due to vague interpretation of 'sexual interpretations')
]--->Nuremburg laws appear to be an implementation of the desire not to 'polute' German blood stock that is manifest in Mein Kampf.
-->1920 - '25 Points of the Nazi Programme of 1920' contains idea that no Jew should be citizen of Germany.
-->Nuremburg Laws (Doc 55) 'The Reich Citizenship Law' prevented Jews being German citizens.
]--->Intensionalists argue therefore that Nazis had aim/agenda for Jews and implemented it as soon as the had the power to do so.
---->However, Nuremburg laws only formulated the day before being passed. Not part of long term planned programme, even though their content fits with Mein Kampf.
•>Historian: Lucy Dawidowicz (American-Polish Jew & Intentionalist Advocate)
->Final solution appeared in Mein Kampf '...in its matured form and remained a central tenet in Hitlers ideaology from which he never deviated'
-->Criticised by the way the Nuremburg laws were produceb ad-hoc.
•]->To accept intentionalist argument one has to accept that Hitler created major Nazi policy and that it was actually carried out.
-->Thus Hitler was 'Master of the Third Reich'?
•>Intentionalist argue there was a 'growing radicalisation of action against the Jews'
(->See chronology in folder)
-->33 - 34 : Fairly low level persecution. Minor laws. No systematic attempt to round up or exterminate anyone. Anti-semitic propoganda made life as a Jew harder in terms of abuse when walking down the street, harder getting jobs etc.
--->Not centrally planned action in general. Individual action by people carrying out low level persecution.
-->Sept 1935 Nuremburg Laws - First big central policy action.
-->36 - 37 : Relativly quiet.
-->38 : Action increased. Jewish passports marked 'J', 15,000 stateless Jews resettled in poland.
-->Nov. 38 : Kristallnacht, Jews fined. Jews no longer to bear arms. Clampdown on Jewish cultural life. Segregation of schools. Jewish businesses shut down. Limits on Jewish mobility. Universary attendance banned.
-->39 : Continued policy issolating and persecuting Jews. Measures (name prefix & Star of David) to mark out the Jews. Curfew for Jews.
-->1939 Census showed 215,000 Jews in Third Reich.
-->14 Oct '41 : Possible start of large scale deportation of Jews to concentration camps in the East. 'Resettlement in the East' = Euphamism for being sent to the death camps
-->Sept 44 - Only 15,000 Jews left in the Third Reich.
]->Sporadic periods of action / inaction. Not a gradual stepped radicalisation.
•Treatment of the Jews in WWII
->Ghetoisation of Polish Jews imediatly after invasion.
->Curfews & Movement restrictions only on German Jews.
->End 39, Early 40 - Einsatzgruppen worked behind front lines killing anyone who threatened of potentially threatened Nazis. Including Jews, Communists.
->1940 - Madagascar Plan for relocation of European Jews to Madagascar. Potentially inspired by earlier Frence 'Bonnet' plan for similar relocation of French Jews discovered when Germany invaded Paris. (Ref Doc 61)
-->If Madagascar plan is genuine then it casts doubt on the Intentionalist argument.
--->Post-war trial of Eichmann (plan co-ordinator) suggests plan was genuine.
-->Plan never actually implemented. Probably due to Royal Navy dominance threatening success.
->1942 - Wannsee conference - filling in details of 'Final Solution', but arguably not where the decision for extermination was made as no major players (Hitler, Himler etc.) actually present. Decision almost certainly made beforehand. Likely prior to Dec 1941.
->22nd June 41 - War on the Eastern Front starts. Successful until October when they got stuck. Would have had 7 weeks more if they'd started in May as planned.
-->Once fighting has got to stalemate then relocation in the East plans curtailed. Nowhere for the Jews to go.
->Extermination camps used from 1942 onwards. Talked of by Nazis as 'resetlement in the East' - propoganda effort.
•>Most camps liberated by the advancing Soviet army. A few liberated by British.
->Led to realisation by British public of what had actually been going on.
- - - - - - - - -
•Labour Camps - Forced Labour. Deaths from exhaustion but not camps for extermination.
->Eg. Buna-Monowitz (part of the Auschwitz complex)
•Concentration Camp - Prison. Holding centre for large numbers.
->Eg. Central Auschwitz.
•Extermination Camps - Places for extermination of Jews.
->Eg. Birkenau (part of the Auschwitz complex).
•Goebbels
->(See notes in folder)
->Propoganda Party Official, Minister and Gaulighter
-->Had party & state role.
•The Press
->Controlled by Goebbels
-->Seen as a way of educating people for Nazism. Press as an instrument of the Nazi state.
-->Nazis had more difficulty getting control of press than with Radio.
--->Took till 1939 for complete control.
->Bought out and took control of publishing houses over 33 - 39.
->Nazi newspapers displayed in public spaces & on boards. eg. At Bus Stops.
-->Nazi papers regional rather than National.
•>Arts & Culture - attempts to regulate art & culture. Imposition of German Nazi culture on Germany.
->Nazis established Reich Chamber for various media (Literature, Press, Radio, Theatre, Music, Creative Arts).
-->To practise a particular craft (public or private) one had to be a member of the relevant Reich Chamber.
--->Membership administrated by Nazis. Only those favourable to Nazis could join. Reich Chamber exerted control over arts content as well as participation. (eg. No books by Freudian psycologists, No Jazz or sycopated music, music by Jewish composer Mendhelssohn)
->1937 - Held an exhibition of 'Degenerate Art' to highlight how bad this art was. Idea backfired as people saw the art and liked it. 20,000 visitors a day.
-->Hitler did not like modern art.
•>May 1933 - Book burning
•Goebbels control
->Knowledge
->Attitudes
->Artistic & Literary Expression.
•••[Background]•••
•NAZI = National Socialism
->an oxymoronic fusion of Nationism & Socialism
•It is likely that Hitler wrote the Nationalist points & Drexler wrote the socialist points.
•Because of the two conflictinq strands of policy w/ in NAZI policy there was continual tension in the party
->Socialist elements of the party finally defeated in 'Night of the Long Knives' by Nationalist elements.
-->Some of the socialist points of the 25 points ditched eventually.
•Both Nationalist & Socialist strands agreed on some policies.
->Eg.Anti-semitism, education & pe, revokation of ToV etc.
•••[Revolution Stabalised : Conflict with the SA]•••
•Rohm expressed disillusionment in 1933 at the lack of gain for the SA membership.
->Wanted 'second revolution'.
-->Argued that 'first revolution' (March '33) had swept away Weimar Republic but second was neccessary to implement National Socialism, particularly socialist element advocated by Rohm.
-->Rohm argued that the SA '...stand side by side with the army. Not as part of them.' This would have made army v. nervous because of fears Rohm wanted to integrate army into SA.
-->Rohm claimed 'SA and SS as the third power factor of the new State with special tasks.' - 'the SA and SS are the foundation pillars of the coming National Socialist State' - 'The SA and SS will not tolerate the German revolution going to sleep or being betrayed at the half-way stage by non-combatants'.
--->A criticism of Hitlers 'Evolution not Revolution' stance.
•1933-34 - Criticism of Hitler by Rohm. Claims of 'unjustified interference by political officials' and breakdown of administrative structure question the degree to which Hitler was in control.
->Hitler had little time for disillusionment of the SA. More concerned with Army, Civil Service & Industry.
•1933 - Frick : Government not fully in control of SA.
->Subordinte leaders & members of the SA carryinq out activities for which they had no authority or were not in line with Nazism even after requests for them to stop.
-->SA using intimidation to protect their own members.
-->Upset police & gestapo who felt SA was encroaching on their powers and interfering.
-->Also upset Judiciary and Nazi party officials.
-->Army seriously concerned by suspected millitary ambition of the Army.
--->Army had just over 100,000 men. SA had over 2.5 million men.
-->If SA took control of Army:
--->Nazi leadership woried that SA (and Rohm) would be able to overthrow Hitler group.
--->International stability of Germany would have been damaged by neighbouring countries fear of large German army dominated by SA 'thugs'.
•1934 (Run up to Night of the Long Knives)
->SA began setting up armed groups in German interior. 6000-8000 in one area alone. Even some in demilitarised zone.
-->However - no evidence that Rohm was actually planninq a Putsch in 1934. All SA given leave in June & July.
->Hindenburg not long left to live.
-->If Hitler wants to be next President he needed support of the army. Thus didn't want SA to get control of the army.
->Summer 1934 - Risinq right-wing nationalist opposition to Hitler. A coalition of conservative nationalists with army support could have potentially overthrown Hiter.
-->June 34 - Von Papen's Marburg speech - An attack on Hitlers leadership in attempt to unite conservatives against Hitler. Motivated greatly by seeing the trouble with the SA pursuing a second of continuous revolution.
--->Spoke of divides/dualism between Nazi movement & state. Who is governing - the party/movement or the state.
•1933 - Frick : Government not fully in control of SA.
->Subordinte leaders & members of the SA carryinq out activities for which they had no authority or were not in line with Nazism even after requests for them to stop.
-->SA using intimidation to protect their own members.
-->Leadership of party those with authority, but lacking power
•Friedrich's criteria of Totalitarianism
->Everything run according to the rulers ideology *
->Only the rulers political party
->Media, Economy, Military controled by the government (strongly centralised)
->Sophisticated terror system to control population. *
[*Hannah Arendt only had these in her definition of the totalitarian state]
(See notes on Totalitarianism (search))
•Historians Views of SS role.
->SS is 'real & essential instrument of the Fuhrer authority' (Hans Buchheim)
-->Thus in this view SS is central to the totalitarianism as they are the terror enacting the ideology.
•SS in war time
->Crucial to implementing Nazi policy.
•Individuals / groups opposed to Goerinq
->Blomberg - thought air-force should come under the control of the army. Goering controled air office from 1933 but only gained full control over air matters in 1934.
->Schact - believed Goerinq 'had a complete lack of understanding for economics'. Goerinq effectivly had full control of the economy 1937-42: outlined main aims of the 4 year plan but most decisions taken & implemented by officials.
->Schact - Goering wanted Autarky & war preparations. Schact wanted growth in consumer demand and exports.
->Business & Heavy Industry - Disliked agenda for nationalisation & Goerings economic program.
•Goerings Appointments
->State
-->Reichstag Deputy
-->President of the Reichstag
-->Minister without portfolio
-->Prussian Minister of the Interior
-->Head of Air office
-->Field Marshall
->Party
-->Head of Four Year plan office.
-->Named Hitlers successor.
•Increasing power and authority
>1922 - Joined Nazi Party
>1928 - Made Reichstag deputy
>1932 - Reichstag president
>1933 (Jan) - Minister without Portfolio & Prussian Minister of the Interior
>1932 - Placed in charge of 4 year plan office.
>1936 - 42 - Placed in charge of Luftwaffe.
>1938 - Made field marshal
>1939 - Named as Hitlers successor.
•How did Goerinqs power increase 33 - 39?
[->Power of Nazi party & Government increased 33 - 39, thus potential for more power for individuals increased.
-->Nazis aquire power over time - Economic, social, political, military.
->Power in Nazi Germany was a Zero sum game. Finite amount of power shared out between the players. One loss = anothers gain (eg. In the case of Rohm & Himmler)
-->Therefore power understood in relative terms. (Eg. Is Goering more powerful than Goebbels)]
->1933 - Goering was Minister without Portfolio. Low status in cabinet. Would suggest low power, but this was not how power in Nazi Germany worked.
-->Two key factors influenced power:
--->How positions were used
--->Individuals relationships with Hitler.
->1933 - Prussian Minister of the Interior - Not much to do with Germany as a whole. Focussed only on the state of Prussia. But from 1932 Prussia had been ruled by the central government (Von Papen had taken action to this effect after Prussian unrest)
->1933 - Presidency of the Reichstag held since 32 becomes effectivly irrelevant. Had been a powerful position in 32/33 (through delegated power from Hitler) when getting through enabling act.
->Goering was imposing figure & intelectually sharp
->Had a hiqh profile at time of the Reichstag fire trial.
->March 33 - Put in charge of setting up air force by Hitler. Came into conflict with Minister of Defence Blomberg who thought air force should be created under the Army.
-->1938 - Goering conspired against Blomberg. It was revealed Blombergs new wife was formerly a prostitute and he had to resign.
->Mid 1930's - Gradual increase in power with getting full control of air forces.
->1936 - Given control of Four Year Plan. Dual aims of getting economy & army ready for war.
-->Came into conflict with Schact. Goering wanted Autarky & war preparations. Schact wanted growth in consumer demand and exports.
--->Schact resigned in 1937.
•>Removal of Blomberg & Schact increased Blombergs power.
->Controls economy 37 - 42
->Trusted by Hitler
->Relativly popular
]->Therefore : Shifting power over time.
•Increase of power & authority
>1922 - Met Rohm & became involved in party.
>1923 - Took part in Munich Putsch.
>1924 - Supported Strasser & worked on his 24 Reichstag campaign
>1925 - Gained support of Hitler
>1929 - Gained control of SS
>1933 - Police Chief of Munich
>1934 - Increased power with Night of the Long Knives
>1936 - Got control of all police forces in Germany
>1944 - Given command of army reserve & a number of active units.
(see Handout)
•Increases in power
>Early 1920s - Gregor Strassers Secretary
>1925 - Drawn to Hitlers leadership
•Head of DAF (German Workers Front)
->Appointed by Hitler
->Recieved order from Hitler to 'dea with the trade unions'. (1933)
-->Admits (publically stated 1937) that he had no real knowledge of the TUs when he took them over. Had not expected the job.
-->The Nazi party had no programme / policy for dealing with the TUs so the implemenation of the order came down to Ley.
•Appointment made by Hitler not on ability but on Loyalty.
->Power is therefore delegated but not transfered from Hitler.
•Was Hitler master of the Third Reich or a weak dictator?
•••[Master of the Third Reich]•••
•Criteria for Masterhood
->Control of
-->Organisations of the state (army, police etc.)
-->Economic control (wages, prices, output, imports)
-->Eradicate political opposition.
-->Policy making authority
-->Control of the media
-->Access to knowledge
-->Appointing personell.
]•>Norman Rich argues Hitler had control of these and thus was master of the Third Reich.
To what extent did Hitler control the following
•Policy Makinq
->Gypsies
-->Not Nazi based action till racial understanding introduced in 1936 when Himlers organisations take control of the 'gypsie problem'
->Homosexuality
-->Policy drive originating from Hitler. Action against Rohm & at higher level by Himler & SS. From 36 Himler had control of police & SS thus was key in implementing homosexuality policy but the policy originated from Hitler.
]->Hitler sets the tone of policy but the details are being worked out by others.
•Economy
->Example of Robert Ley. Decision from Hitler but Ley left to fill in details.
->Four Year Plan announced & framework set by Hitler.
-->Implemented by Goering.
•Foreign policy
->Comes direct from Hitler himself.
•Media
->Control implemented through Goebbels.
•Thus
->Much set up & tasks carried out in line with Hitlers aims & wishes but without consultation with Hitler.
->Hitler sets parameters but others fill in details.
•>The question is then raised that if action happened which Hitler did not know about how much was he in control.
•See pg 7. of Kershaw typed notes.
•'Master of the Third Reich'
->From 1970s book by American historian Norman Rich.
-->Rich argues Hitler was in control of policy making & the appointment of key personnel.
--->But the question is raised : were the policies actually carried out and where did the authority come from.
--->Hitler arguably master in terms of war aims (Rich's book was called 'Hitlers War Aims')
]->Intentionalist argument
•>Hitler says what he wants & it is done. Widely held view until the 1960s.
--->Eg. Implementation of Euthanasia policy, dealing with communists, anti-semitism, choice of political appointments etc. seems to suggest Intentionalist system.
--->Army swore oath of loyalty to Hitler. Further suggests Hitler as Master of the Third Reich.
--->Name of Hitler was everywhere. Message put across that Hitler was the center of everything. Idealogically the primacy of the Fuhrer asserted under the fuhrerprinzip.
---->International community also treated Hitler as synonomous with Germany.
•Bracher (German Historian) argued Nazism could not be seperated from Hitler & thus term 'Hitlerism' was applicable.
->Bracher sees the overlapping areas of authority & conflict in the government structure as a deliberate divide & rule strategy.
•Hitler was 'to some extent a weak dictator'.
->From a book by Hans Mommsen
-->Saw Hitler as a procrastinator, concerned about his own prestige, influenced by his current enterage.
-->Note : Mommsen only says Hitler was 'to some extent a weak dictator' not simply 'a weak dictator'.
•Martin Broszat believed Hitlers policies led to the internal conflicts & confusion.
->Not intentionally but by poor understanding & managment.
->Percieves Hitler as unwilling to take action - can't get around to doing things.
->Early years - Nazis had no idea what to do with their power initially.
-->Later - collective centralised government broke down. No cabinet post 38. Individual departments largely working independent of one another. Hitler not interested in much domestic policy - decisions made by individual ministers / organisations & implemented by civil servants.
--->Only certain policy directly in control of Hitler was War preparations & International Relations. Some Historians also put anti-semitism here.
]->Disintegration of the central state. No joined up government. Party/State distinction lost.
->Hitler sanctions pressures rather than creating policy.
•Kershaw
->''Hitler produced so few diretives in domestic politics that it is difficult to know what his aims were.''
•Looking at the structure of Government in Germany.
->Where are policies actually made
•Structuralist Argument criticises Intentionalist Argument
->How do you know what Hitlers intention was?
-->Very tricky to know.
->Intentionalist suggests Hitler had complete control, but this is not reflected in the facts.
-->If Hitler wanted something could he realy get it to happen in practise?
•Structuralist
->There were competinq centres of power in Germany
-->Eg. Army, SA, SS, Ministry of Economics, Ministry of Propoganda, Four Year Plan, Office, DAF, HJ etc.
--->Top people in each centre use their office as their power base.
->Competition between the conflicting power bases (often ministries overlap - eg. 4 Year Plan Office & Ministry of Economics)
-->Eg. Goering & Shacht conflicting on economics.
->Power bases constantly being extended. More than just the office needed for power.
-->Not all did this well. Eg. Rust - Minister for Education. Not as powerful as even HJ leader, Baldur von Schirach. Rust had a weak personality.
-->Therefore, as well as office power base, a forceful personality was needed.
-->Ministers/leaders wanted weak leaders in their neighbouring departments/areas so that their unofficial power base could be increased.
--->Defeated leaders mainly
colateral damage.
•Did Hitler deliberatly set up internal conflicts?
->Big debate amongst historians.
>Arguments for:
->Doesn't want anyone to have enough power to be able to challenge him.
-->Power was therefore shared out amongst many bases and to get more power an individual has to catch the attention of the Fuhrer. Therefore everyone wanted to appear strong and show no weakness.
--->Social Darwinist view - the one who triumphs in conflicts is the strongest.
•Power
->Required loyalty to Hitler. Individuals had to ingratiate themselves to Hitler.
-->Eg. Goebels supporting Kristalnacht against his own wish in order to rehabilitate his status with Hitler after the Ba'arova affair.
-->Eg. Gauleiters gave Hitler complete authority
]->All suggests power coming from Hitler. But - it is argued that Hitler did not play a great part in the day to day running of Germany. Did not know details of what was actually going on.
•Views of Hitlers involvement
->Some believe Hitler was simply lazy and didn't read the papers he should have read.
->But- no-one initiated policies they thought the Fuhrer would not approve of.
•Some have argued that anyone who voted aqainst the Nazis up to 1933 (when Party election ceased) constitute opposition.
->Disputed by the fact that elements of Nazi policy were found in DNVP, BVP, ZP policy. A vote for these cannot be counted a vote against the Nazis.
->Also cannot be argued that low voter turnout let the Nazis into power - this is factually incorect - turnout at general elections was high.
•Who opposed the Nazis
->Some who voted for or joined idealogically opposite parties. Eg. SPD, Communist Party.
->Individuals & groups opposed different policies.
-->Eg. Euthanasia policy opposed by R.C. Church. But R.C. Church agreed with other policies - eg. Abortion, Contraception.
->Communists possibly only group providing constant opposition of the Nazis.
-->Until Non-Aggression Pact with Russia (Signed by Ribbentrop / Molotov). Limited opposition to Nazis by Communists 39-41.
->1933 onwards the Nazis were regarded by all (except USSR) foreign governments as the legitimate government of Germany.
-->Made internal opposition very hard. How to oppose ones own 'legitimate' government.
->Policies of Nazis widely accepted and supported.
-->Nazis got 43.9% of vote - but arguably far more people supported Nazis than voted for them.
•Opposition
->Not saluting the HJ, not signing letters Heil Hitler etc.
-->V. Low level
->Not easy to see any effective methods of opposition.
-->Ruled out by Gleischaltung - TUs & Political parties gone.
-->Individualism pushed out.
->Only group left able to potentially oppose was Armed forces. But: Air force set up post-1933, so no anti-Nazis will have joined. V. Little data on the Navy. Some low level opposition in the Army - but Army had nothing really to lose under Army as were gaining in equipment & number. Oath of alleigance to Hitler limited scope for opposition.
•Difference between opposition to Hitler & opposition to the Nazis
->Opposition to Hitler
-->eg. Rohm, Strasser etc.
->Opposition to the Nazis
•Opposition from within Nazism pre-34.
->Tension between Socialist & Nationalist strands. Ends with Night of the Long Knives.
->Only internal opposition post-34 is based on policy. No attempts to overthrow Hitler.
->Some top army figures show opposition from 36 onwards to Hitlers foreign policy.
-->An overthrow plot was developed by army figures for when Hitler announced the invasion of Czechoslovakia. However - this fell through when no invasion announcement was forthcoming.
•Notes.
->Plan for question B essential.
->Tick off sources as used.
->Precise own knowledge examples.
-->Avoid generalisations. Deailed factual own knowledge.